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EDUCATION. 



WORKS OF THE SAME AUTHOR 

REPUBLISHED IN BOSTON 

BY MARSH, CAPEN AND LYON. 

I. Phrenology, or the doctrine of the mental phe- 
nomena. Vol. I. Physiological part. Vol. II. Philo- 
sophical part. 

II. Outlines of Phrenology. 

III. Philosophical Catechism of the Natural Laws 
of Man. 

OTHER WORKS 

PUBLISHED BY THE SAME AUTHOR IN ENGLISH: TO BE 
REPUBLISHED AS SOON AS PRACTICABLE. 

I. Anatomy of the brain, with eleven plates, 8vo. 
14s. 

II. Appendix to the Anatomy of the brain, with 
seven lithographic plates, 3s. 

III. Observations on Insanity. 10s. 

IV. Phrenology in connection with the study of 
physiognomy. Part I. Characters with 34 litho- 
graphic plates, Royal 8vo. 22s. 

V. Art. of the For. Quart. Review on phrenology, 
with notes. Is. 6d. 



A 

VIEW 



OF THE 



ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 



OF 



EDUCATION, 



FOUNDED ON THE 



STUDY OF THE NATURE OF MAN. 



.To K& ■ EY 

G. SPURZHEIM, M. D. 

OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF VIENNA AND PARIS, AND LICENTIATE 
OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF LONDON. 



FIRST AMERICAN EDITION, 
Revised and Improved by the Author, from the third London ed. 



BOSTON: 

MARSH CAPEN AND LYON 



MDCCCXXXII. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by 

Maksh, Capis & LT05, 
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 



PREFACE. 



The most important point in Anthropology, or the 
study of Man, is to acquire a knowledge of his Na- 
ture; and the next, to discover the mode in which 
his physical and mental constitution may be most ad- 
vantageously improved. Men of eminent talents 
have considered the principles of education worthy 
of their attention ; and many works have been al- 
ready published on this subject. It may therefore 
be asked, Why should another be presented: Be- 
cause education is still conducted in a manner very 
different from that in which it ought to be. Man- 
kind has improved less than we could wish. " There 

are many books, 1 ' says Helvetius, u many schools, 
1* 



VI PREFACE. 

but few persons of understanding; there are many 
maxims, but they are seldom applied; man is old, 
but still a child." New elucidations of this subject, 
therefore, are still wanting; and I hope I shall be 
able to suggest some new ideas upon it. As, howev- 
er, many ancient and modern philosophers have 
examined this subject, several of my ideas may be 
found in other writings; but nowhere are they 
reduced to the principles which I have adopted, and 
arranged in the same order. I hope also to succeed 
in pointing out some new objects, interesting in 
themselves, and leading to important results. 

This, no doubt, will produce opposition. I am 
also aware of the active influence of prejudice, — of 
old habits and selfish passions ; but nothing shall de- 
ter me from communicating what appears to me to 
be founded on the immutable laws of the Creator. 
His authority is the only one I acknowledge in nat- 
ural history. Truth is independent of time; it must 
prevail, though it excite the hatred of the ignorant, 
the weak, and the jealous. 

The reader is requested to bear in mind, that the 
language in which this treatise is composed, is to the 
Author a foreign one. A person so situated is not 



PREFACE vii 

always a competent judge of the nicer shades of 
meaning attaching to the expressions which he em- 
ploys; and from this circumstance, together with 
the difficulty of commanding words to convey his 
ideas properly, he is liable to be betrayed into a tone 
of abrupt and apparently authoritative writing, quite 
foreign to his wish and intention. To these causes 
the reader is requested to impute any thing in the 
manner of the following pages, which may appear 
not suited to the circumstances or the subject. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

General View 1 

Definition of Education - ib. 

Perfectibility of Man 2 

Improvement of mankind in arts and sciences 4 

In religion and morality 6 

Causes of the want of success in education - 11 

Singleness of the human species - - 18 

Utility of instruction 31 

Division of education - - - 34 



SECTION I. CONDITIONS OF EXCITEMENT 36 



Chap. I. On the laws of hereditary descent 37 



Chap. II. On the laws of the vegetative 

FUNCTIONS 



54 



Duration of life - - - - - 56 

Period I. From birth to two years, or infancy 63 

Temperature ... - 63 

Food 65 



X CONTENTS. 

Page 

Air 69 

Light -..--- 70 

Cleanliness ----- 71 

Sleep, watching, rest, and bodily exercise - 72 

Period II. From two to seven years, or childhood 74 

Dentition Dietetic rules - ib- 

Chap. III. On the laws of exercise 84 

Habit 84 

Meaning of the word exercise 88 

Exercise of intellectual faculties - - 91 

of feelings - - - - 92 

Signs, Greek and Latin - - - - 96 

The means of exercising the faculties are different 114 

Order of exercising the faculties - 116 

Different success of exercise - - 121 

Mutual instruction ----- 124 

Exercise increases the organs - - - 130 

Chap. IV. Mutual influence of the faculties 

AS MEANS OF EXCITEMENT - 133 

Mnemonics ------ 135 

SECTION II. ON THE DIRECTION OF THE 

FACULTIES - - 140 



Chap. I. Importance of morality - - 141 

Happiness founded more on morality than on 

intellect ----- 144 



Chap. II. Each faculty tends to action - 148 

Regulation of the mode in which gratification 
should bo sought - 151 



CONTENTS. XI 

Page 

Proper employment of the faculties - - 153 

Little effect of precepts - 154 

Faculties which assist each other - - 155 

Direction of amativeness and of religious feelings - 163 

Objects of education - 167 

Chap. III. Motives to action - 171 

Superior faculties furnish the aim of our actions 173 

Different motives may produce the same action 174 

Selfishness and approbativeness - - 178 

Chap. IV. Differences of natural endowment 185 

Class I. Where the superior faculties predominate ib. 
Class II. Where one or several inferior, and one 

or several superior are very active - - 186 
Class III. Where certain of the inferior faculties 

are strong, and all the superior weak - - ib t 

Class IV. Where all the faculties are middling ib. 

Education. to be varied with ditFerei.t individuals 188 
Individuals should be placed in situations for which 

they are naturally fitted - 190 

Chap. V. Education of the sexes - - 205 

Condition of women - ib. 
There is a natural difference in the mental powers 

of the sexes ----- 207 

Certain feelings stronger in women than in men 210 
Certain intellectual powers stronger in men than in 

women ------ 215 

Chap. VI. Education of nations - - 220 

Chap. VII. On public and on private education 264 

Conclusion ----- 266 



Xll CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX. 

Page 

On THE CORRECTION AND REFORM OF MALEFACTORS 268 

Definition of legislation - 269 

Aim of legislation - 272 

Means of preventing crime •.-.„_ {j^ 

Means of correcting malefactors - - 280 

Treatment of incorrigible offenders - - 289 



On illegal actions without guilt - - 294 

I. Illegal actions of idiots - 295 

II. Illegal actions of madmen - - 299 



On illegal actions which admit of extenuating 

MOTIVES ------ 300 

Strong mental affections - 302 

Child-murder - - - - - 308 



Conclusion ----- 318 



ELEMENTARY 



PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION 



GENERAL *VIEW. 

The preliminary points to be considered in this 
general view are, 1. The definition of the word 
Education ; 2. The perfectibility of mankind ; 
3. The little success which has hitherto attended 
Education ; 4. The singleness of the human 
species ; — and, 5. The usefulness of Educaitf on. 

As to the definition of Education, I think it 
necessary to state, that I intend to introduce in 
this volume several topics which are not gene- 
rally considered as falling under Education in 
the common acceptation of the word, merely de- 
noting instruction in literature and accomplish- 
ments ; I use this term as embracing every means 
which can be made to act upon the vegetative, 
affective, and intellectual constitution of man, 
2 



2 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

for the purpose of improving this his threefold 
nature. 

Being asked what I mean by human nature ? I 
reply, that it is not body alone, nor mind alone, 
nor animal propensities, affections, or passions; 
nor moral feelings, nor intellect ; neither is it or- 
ganization in general, nor any system of the body, 
nor any particularity whatever ; — but human na- 
ture, in the proper sense of the words, compre- 
hends all the observable phenomena of life, from 
the moment of conception to that of death, both in 
the healthy and diseased state ; or, in short, all 
the manifestations both of the body and mind. 

The next introductory point to be elucidated 
is, whether human nature is susceptible of perfec- 
tion or degradation. 

In speaking of the susceptibility of being per- 
fected, it is not to be understood that man may 
lose one faculty and acquire another ;i for the fun- 
damental nature of man being unchangeable in 
body as well as in the faculties of the mind, such 
an event is impossible on earth.; The meaning of 
the proposition, therefore, can only be, whether 
certain powers are capable of attaining greater or 
less activity ; — whether some of them may pre- 
vail over others ; and, whether the mutual influ- 
ence of the faculties and their actions may be reg- 
ulated and well conducted. 



GENERAL VIEW. 3 

In this latter signification alone, the answer is 
affirmative. (Such a perfectibility exists in all 
living beings. Certain qualities of plants, for in- 
stance, may be strengthened, increased, weakened, 
or diminished. Fruit trees may be modified as 
to their growth or fruit, their produce. Each 
part of the bodies of animals is subject to great 
variations. Animals, also, are not confined to 
actions which their preservation requires. They 
modify their conduct according to the situation in 
which they may be placed ; hence they are sus- 
ceptible of a kind of education beyond their wants. 
Monkeys, dogs, horses, bears, &c. can be instruct- 
ed to play various tricks. They have also a 
recollection of what has happened to them, and 
modify their conduct accordingly. An old fox 
which has escaped several snares, and knows that 
he is watched, takes greater precautions, and 
proceeds with more slyness, when he approaches 
the habitations of man, with a view of stealing 
poultry. A bird whose nest has been destroyed 
in a frequented place, conceives the necessity of 
placing it in future in a more retired situation ; 
and the construction of the second nest is also 
more solid and more perfect than that of the first. 
A dog resists its instinct to run after a hare, be- 
cause it recollects the beating it has previously 
received on that account. The horse avoids the 
stone at which it once has stumbled. There are 
even facts on record of learned pigs and learned 
canary birds. Similar examples are within the 



4 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

knowledge of every one, and it is therefore unne- 
cessary to multiply them. Yet this power of 
modifying their actions is not unbounded in 
animals, but limited according to their nature. 
Pigeons and hares, for instance, can never be 
taught to hunt like falcons and dogs. 

Man offers similar appearances. The various 
modifications to which his body is liable, are 
known. The manifestations of the mind also 
vary in different persons, even in whole nations. 
Yet, as far as history informs us, mankind has 
always been essentially the same J The only dif- 
ference, observed at different times, has been, that 
the manifestations of the special powers have been 
more or less active, modified, and variously em- 
ployed. 

The next question is, Whether man, with re- 
spect to his feelings and intellect, has improved 
or degenerated. By some authors mankind is 
said to have arrived at a greater state of perfec- 
tion than it originally enjoyed ; while others la- 
ment its progressive degeneracy. The improve- 
ment or degeneracy of the human race, in regard 
to a knowledge of the external world, the prac- 
tice of the fine arts, and moral conduct, are par- 
ticularly to be examined. A detailed elucidation 
of these points would require a whole volume : it 
is my intention only to take a general view of them. 



GENERAL VIEW. 



It is superfluous to mention, that the moderns 
enjoy a great superiority over the ancients with 
respect to every branch of natural history and 
natural philosophy. The Baconian and true meth- 
od of studying Nature, founded on observation 
and induction, has been recently discovered and 
introduced. It has forwarded every kind of posi- 
tive knowledge in an astonishing degree. It has, 
however, been unfortunately neglected in the 
study of man, and hence his nature is but little 
known, (it is true, whatever it was in the power 
of man's reasoning faculties, unaided by observa- 
tion, to discover, was discovered by the ancient 
philosophers.^ But the knowledge of man remain- 
ed extremely vague and uncertain, and Phrenology 
alone will supply this defect, and reduce An- 
thropology to invariable principles. 

In the fine arts of imitation modern artists find 
it difficult to surpass the ancient masters, yet they 
seem to be wrong in confining themselves to mere 
imitation of ancient productions ; nature always 
remains the best model, inexhaustible in her mod- 
ifications, whilst by the former proceeding the 
arts degenerate, or their improvement, at least, is 
impeded. 

The arts of industry have undoubtedly im- 
proved, and political economy may be considered 
as a science of modern days. The state of man- 
kind at large is evidently better than in ancient 

2* 



6 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

times and during the ages of darkness,(and it will 
still improve in proportion as ignorance and im- 
morality are removed, and the laws of the Creator 
attended to. 

The improvement or degeneracy of man, as 
regards his moral and religious opinions, presents 
a particular interest, even with respect to his 
worldly happiness. Both these sorts of notions 
vary according to the different states of civiliza- 
tion, and they are, by no means, stationary, any 
more than the functions of every other faculty. 

Savages commonly believe in polytheism, and 
generally consider all Superior Beings as malevo- 
lent, and worship them through fear. People in 
a more cultivated state admit Superior Beings of 
a mixed nature, like men. The gods of the 
Greeks, for instance, were supposed to be endow- 
ed with all human feelings ; they required food 
and sleep. Jupiter himself was not free from the 
human frailties : he was jealous, often cruel and 
implacable. He had overturned every thing in 
heaven, and reduced the other gods to be his 
slaves. The gods of the Romans were not more 
noble. They were mercenary, and could be 
bribed by fine temples, games, and more accepta- 
ble sacrifices. People of little instruction divided 
the invisible beings into benevolent and malevo- 
lent. Others admitted two principles ; one benev- 
olent, the other malevolent ; and they acknow- 



GENERAL VIEW. 7 

ledged also many inferior deities, as emanations 
from the primitive ones. Persons of more culti- 
vated minds believed in one supreme benevolent 
deity j and in inferior spirits, some benevolent, 
others malevolent. ( The most enlightened ac- 
knowledged only one Supreme Being, boundless 
in perfection, and the maker of every creature. 

The mode of worship deserves equally a pecu- 
liar consideration in the historv of mankind. It 
is always conformable to the notions entertained 
of the nature of the Deity, (in order to avert the 
wrath of the malevolent powers, and to please them, 
men have made themselves as miserable as possi- 
ble, by mortifications, flagellations, painful la- 
bors, sacred victims, human sacrifices, and sui- 
cides.' To gain the favor of manlike gods, sweet- 
smelling herbs, burning incense, oblations, gifts, 
agreeable impressions on the senses, ceremonies 
which illustrate a prince at his court, and various 
sorts of formalities, have been employed. 

If we compare the absurdities of Paganism, or 
even the imperfect doctrines of Judaism, with the 
purity and sublime principles of true Christianity, 
we shall perceive that the latter are greatly supe- 
rior. The Old and New Testament attribute very 
different qualities to the Supreme Being, and their 
moral precepts are very different. The old dis- 
pensation may be viewed as accommodated to the 
Jews, who were a hardhearted, stiffnecked, stub- 
born race. 



8 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The God of Israel was jealous, revengeful, ter- 
rible, and a God of war. He was fond of perfume, 
ornaments, ceremonies, burning incense, even 
of bloody sacrifices. He commanded his people 
to destroy those who forsook him, or who did not 
obey his commandments ; even those who kindled 
fire on the sabbath day. Neither brother, sister, 
son, daughter, husband, wife nor friend, was to 
be spared, if he served another god. He who 
knew an infidel , was forbidden to pity, conceal or 
save him ; on the contrary, it was his duty to stone 
him. (Exod. xxxv. Deuteronomy xiii.) 

\The God of Christians, on the contrary, is love, 
benevolence and charity. He is the Father of the 
whole of mankind, and wishes for universal hap- 
piness. He freely pardons, provided the sinner 
repent. He gives the same laws to all, makes no 
exception, and pays no attention to the appear- 
ance of persons ; he judges, punishes, or rewards 
every one after his actions. He is a Spirit that 
cannot be confined to temples, and is to be adored 
in spirit and in truths (John iv. Rom. ii. 1 John 
iv. Matt. vi. &c.) 

The Jews were obliged to be faithful only to 
those of their own race ; they were permitted to 
take usury from foreigners, and to hate them. 
David praised God in saying, " Do I not hate 
those who hate thee ? I hate them with perfect 
hatred." (Ps. exxxviii.) They were ordered to 



GENERAL VIEW. 9 

form a separate nation, and prohibited from inter- 
marrying with other people. Their food was pre- 
scribed ; many things were inderdicted and de- 
clared impure. Polygamy was lawful. Solomon 
had seven hundred wives and three hundred con- 
cubines. The husband was allowed to put away 
his wife ; it was sufficient to write her a bill of 
divorcement, &c. &c. ) 

(How superior and more noble are the principles 
of Christianity : they prohibit anger, hatred and 
revenge, and order us not to return evil for evil ; 
they command forgiveness of every offence seven 
times in a day, and seventy times seven, if asked 
for ; to love our enemies ; to bless them that 
curse us, and to do good to them that hate us. 
They interdict all selfish passions, and declare our 
neighbor every one who does the will of God. 
Christ asked to drink of a woman of Samaria, 
whilst the Jews had no dealings with that nation. 
He associated with Jews and Gentiles, ate with 
publicans and sinners, and declared those only 
who do the will of his heavenly Father, to be his 
mother, sister or brother^ 

No food is an abomination to Christians. 
Christ said, u Not that which enters into the 
mouth defiles a man ;" and St. Paul declares to 
the Romans, cc I know and am persuaded by the 
Lord Jesus, that there is nothing unclean in 
itself," Christ permitted only one wife, and 



10 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

in this respect re-established the law as it was 
from the beginning of the creation. (Mark x. 6.) 

Before the Christian dispensation, empires were 
founded by the sword, and by the most cruel and 
frightful destruction of the vanquished. 

^Christ declared, that he came, not to destroy 
men's lives, but to save them ; that he who exalts 
himself shall be abased. He made no distinction 
among persons, and considered love and peace 
as the aim of all commandments.) He only pro- 
posed the doctrine of his heavenly Father for the 
acceptance of mankind, and did not enforce it by 
the sword. He directed his disciples only to 
shake off the dust of their feet in departing out 
of that house or city where they had not been 
courteously received, or where their words had 
not been attended to."\ 

The superiority of the Christian principles 
above the Jewish law is evident. St. Paul said 
to the Hebrews (iii.), that " Christ is more wor- 
thy than Moses ;" and (vii. 20.) "by so much 
was Christ made a surety of a better Testa- 
ment;" and, (viii. 7.) "if the first Covenant 
had been faultless, then should noplace have been 
found for the second." True Christianity really 
improves the moral and religious character of a 
Jew. 



GENERAL VIEW. 11 

In regard to morality, it is indeed impossible 
to establish better principles than have been 
pointed out in the new Testament. But since 
these rules, unexampled in ancient legislation, 
have been established, the followers of Christiani- 
ty have often fallen back to many of the contempt- 
ible doctrines of the heathen. Many points of im- 
portance have been neglected, and trifles adhered 
to. Pretended Christians, for instance, have dis- 
puted, whether it be permitted or not, to eat meat 
on certain days, in the same manner as Mahome- 
dans dispute, whether coffee be or be not prohib- 
ited in the Koran. Notwithstanding these abuses, 
however, it is certain, that the precepts of moral 
and religious conduct have improved by degrees ; 
and that many selfish and absurd opinions will be 
rectified, as soon as human nature shall be better 
understood. True Christianity will gain, by 
every step which is made in the knowledge of 
man. 

Let us now see whether Education is advanced 
as much as may be desirable. Unfortunately we 
find, that notwithstanding the sublime principles 
of Christian morality, and the numerous master- 
pieces of arts and sciences, it is a lamentable truth, 
that hitherto education has succeeded less than the 
friends of humanity wish for. Indeed, if we ex- 
amine its influence on the improvement of man- 
kind, a thousand years is like a day that is past. 
(Who has not seen children of the most pious and 



12 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

exemplary parents indulge in scepticism, and 
plunge themselves into profanity and vice ? And 
who has not observed that licentiousness often pre- 
vails in the most enlightened and refined classes 
of society ? Who has not observed very limited 
talents appear in the offspring of men of the 
greatest genius ? / Now the inferences to be drawn 
from such facts are, that either the education has 
not been adapted to the natural dispositions of 
those individuals, or that every one is not capable 
of receiving the full effect of a good education ; 
and as man in general hitherto has little improved 
by education, we must conclude that either he is 
less perfectible than we may wish for, or that the 
true means of improvement have not been employ- 
ed. The latter cause seems to me the most prob- 
able, and it may be principally accounted for by 
our ignorance of the nature of man. Plants and 
animals succeed only if treated according to their 
natural qualities, and the education of man will 
not and cannot succeed without adapting it to his 
nature. J 

Some philosophers have endeavored to degrade 
man to a level with the brute ; while others have 
fancied that he has nothing whatever in common 
with the animal kingdom. By some the faculties 
of man are considered as the result of external im- 
pressions and accidental circumstances ; while 
others believe that the existence of each person, 
and all the phenomena of that existence, are the 
effects of predestination. 



GENERAL VIEW. 13 

(I shall mention a few particulars concerning the 
great error, according to which the champions of 
education consider new-born children as blank 
paper, on which they can mark every impression. 
But, under such a supposition, why are children 
of the same family so different ? Why can teachers 
not communicate their own talents to every pupil ? 
Why cannot every one, who understands the mas- 
terpieces of genius, produce similar effects ? Why 
is not every poet a Homer, — every musician a 
Handel, a Mozart, a Haydn, — every historian a 
Tacitus, — every speaker a Demosthenes, — every 
painter a Raphael ? ) The rules which lead to 
perfection being pointed out, it would be easy for 
every one to put them into practice, if no innate 
powers were necessary. ( Experience, then, forces 
us to decide entirely against such speculative as- 
sertions ; those who have been engaged in con- 
ducting education are convinced that they are in- 
capable of producing those talents and feelings in 
children which they could wish ; and those who 
assert the contrary, maintain only dreams, and in- 
stead of observing nature, indulge in their fancy. 

Many defenders of education wish to persuade 
us, that the first impressions in early age deter- 
mine the direction of the mind. I do not deny 
their influence, but it is less than it is generally 
supposed to be. Children, in their early years, 
are almost exclusively intrusted to the care of fe- 
males, yet boys and girls show from the earliest 
3 



14 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

infancy their distinctive characters ; and this di£ 
ference between the sexes continues through life. 
(k marked variety of tempers and capacities may 
be observed in children, as soon as they are sus- 
ceptible of any impression} Children, like adult 
persons, are differently affected by the same ex- 
ternal circumstances. Impressions, also, it is to 
be observed, are more or less permanent. How 
often, in the maturity of age, when the activity of 
the mind is the greatest, does it happen, that we 
are at one time perfectly acquainted with a sub- 
ject, but afterwards forget it, as if we had never 
known it ? How, then, is it possible to believe, 
that individual impressions, received at a period 
when the mind is almost inactive, determine the 
character or the mental capacities of a child for 
his whole life ? K)n the other hand, it is well 
known, that many individuals turn out very dif- 
ferent from what they appeared at an earlier period 
of life. It must therefore be allowed, that the 
above mentioned opinion is destitute of all support 
from experience. 

\ 1 do not hesitate to maintain, that education 
must fail, as long as we continue to think that 
children are born alike, and may receive, with 
equal advantage, every kind of education. If J. 
J. Rousseau had taken care of his children instead 
of sending them to the public hospital, he would 
have detected his erroneous conceptions : he would 
have observed, that Nature implants certain kinds 



GENERAL VIEW. 15 

of feeling ; that education only weakens, or invig- 
orates and refines them ; that children react on ex- 
ternal circumstances, according to their natural 
dispositions ; and that it is necessary to adapt ed- 
ucation to the nature of individuals.^ Hence, the 
first thing to be done, is to trace back the facul- 
ties of children to their origin. Such a know- 
ledge will contribute to the advancement of arts 
and sciences, and to the improvement of moral 
conduct, by suggesting suitable means for direct- 
ing the energies of children to the objects which 
they are most fitted by nature to attain. '(There 
are few subjects," says Dugald Stewart, "more 
hackneyed than that of education, and yet there is 
none upon which the opinions of the world are 
still more divided. Nor is this surprising ; for 
most of those who have speculated concerning it, 
have confined their attention chiefly to incidental 
questions about the comparative advantage of pub- 
lic or private instruction, the utility of peculiar 
language or sciences, without attempting a pre- 
vious examination of those faculties and principles 
of the mind, which it is the great object of edu- 
cation to improve,!' — (Elements of the Philosophy 
of the Human Mind, p. 62.) 

Another great error in education, also founded 
on our ignorance of the human nature, is, that 
every teacher takes himself as a model for his 
pupils. \ What he likes and learns with facility, 
he supposes ought to be equally liked and learned 



16 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

by every other person ; while in every child, the 
feelings and intellectual faculties, though essen- 
tially the same, are modified in quantity and qual- 
ity. ) Hitherto, on account of none of the systems 
of education being founded on a correct analysis 
of the faculties of man, education has been con- 
ducted altogether in a general way ; and hence 
almost every individual who thinks for himself 
when arrived at the age of maturity, has found it 
necessary to begin a new course of education, 
according to his individual character and talents. 

Still another point, hitherto not sufficiently un- 
derstood in education, concerns the organic con- 
ditions on which the manifestations of the mind 
depend. This is the object of a new doctrine, and 
is detailed in my work on Phrenology, Vol. I. 

Education, though it does not create any power 
whatever, may produce great effect ; but to that 
purpose its whole system must be changed, and 
this will be done in proportion as the nature of 
man becomes known, and as it will be acknow- 
ledged that man must be perfected like other 
created beings. He is the disciple of nature, and 
must submit to the determined sway which pre- 
vails in her government. He errs the moment he 
ceases to observe, and begins to excogitate. The 
construction of a system of education cannot be a 
creative but an imitative process, which must be 
founded only on the lessons of experience. Here, as 



GENERAL VIEW. 17 

in the cultivation of every other science, it is not 
by the exercise of a sublime and speculative in- 
genuity, that man arrives at truth, but it is by let- 
ting himself down to simple observation, — by re- 
jecting equally the authority of antiquity, and of 
eminent contemporaries, when in opposition to 
nature ;— by sacrificing every consideration that 
opposes the evidence of observation, and its legit- 
imate and well established conclusions ; — by being 
able to renounce all the favorite opinions of in- 
fancy, the moment that truth demands the sacrifice ; 
— in short, by following only the lights of obser- 
vation and induction?; u Does not our happiness 
depend," says a contemporary writer, " on the 
knowledge of the various relations which man 
bears to his fellow man and to his God, and the 
practice of the duties which they impose ; and 
how are we to discover these relations, except by 
the assistance of reason, operating on experience ? 
Can false view r s of human nature, and its attributes, 
increase the happiness of the human race individ- 
ually ; or can political society, framed on such 
erroneous principles, attain the end for which 
alone society was framed ? c Deception and men- 
dacity are always regarded in the common and 
every day intercourse of life as base and odious, — 
Is it then only upon subjects of the highest im- 
portance to man, that he may be deceived without 
danger or detestation ? " (Retrospective Review, 
No. I. p. 71.) I concur entirely in these senti- 
ments. 



18 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

My ideas on the nature of man, on his funda- 
mental powers ; on their innateness ; on the con- 
ditions of their manifestations in this life ; on the 
moral liberty, and several other points, are ex- 
posed, with details, in works entitled, Physiologi- 
cal and Philosophical Principles of Phrenology. 
I suppose these points to be known to those who 
take up this volume, composed merely with phre- 
nological views, and founded on mere phrenologi- 
cal principles. 

In treating of Education and Legislation, it 
seems important to examine, Whether there is 
only one species of the human race, or whether 
there are several ? The great variety of bodily 
and mental appearances ; — of features, complexion, 
size and configuration ; — of feelings and intellec- 
tual powers, — must strike the most superficial 
observer. The causes of these differences have 
been examined, and various hypotheses have been 
invented to account for them. Some authors 
have had recourse to dine rent original species; 
others have accounted for these modifications, by 
the common laws of nature. It is indeed natural 
to ask, Whether a Negro and a White Man, a 
Dwarf and a Giant, a Hottentot and Lord Bacon, 
are of the same species ? Whether the Cannibal, 
whose earthly and expected heavenly pleasures are 
gratifications of the low animal passions, and the 
true Christian, full of kindness and benignity ; 



GENERAL VIEW. 19 

whether he whose ingenuity is exercised merely 
in destruction and devastation, and he who be- 
holds all creatures as objects of Divine providence 
and beneficence, were originally formed after 
the same image ? 

If there be several species of Man, there can be 
no universal principles of human conduct ; — hu- 
man nature cannot be included in any one system ; 
and the rules which are suitable for one nation 
will not be fit for another. If, on the contrary, 
there be only one species ; — general principles of 
education, general rules of conduct, and national 
laws, may be established. Moreover, if there were 
several species, and one superior to the others, the 
White to the Negro, for example, slavery might 
be contended for as an institution of Nature ; but 
if the species be only one, neither the primitive 
moral character, nor Christianity, can excuse this 
most selfish of all barbarities. 

I will not consider the arguments of those who, 
from inferior motives without any respect for hu- 
man dignity, and without any religious or moral 
principles, or reproaches of conscience, force 
other people to become the mere instruments of 
their selfish gratification. I shall examine only 
the reasons which natural history offers in support 
of the one or other opinion : that the human race 
consists of one species or of several. These rea- 
sons may be drawn from the external qualities of 



gO EDUCATION OP MAN. 

the body, such as size, configuration and com- 
plexion ; its internal structure ; the laws of pro- 
pagation ; and the manifestations of the mind. 

In the elucidation of this important object, it 
is not sufficient to examine the external qualities 
alone. Such a proceeding is like that of Lin- 
naeus, who classed the animals according to their 
external appearances, and not according to their 
nature : or like that of a librarian who should 
class books according to their shape, size or bind- 
ing, without regard to their contents. 

Man is found in all climates ; and hence some 
philosophers have inferred that there are several 
species of man. These philosophers reasoned by 
analogy, stating, that each climate has its own 
species of men in the same way as plants and 
animals are adapted to hot, temperate and frigid 
regions. Plants which grow in the torrid zone, 
perish in a cold climate, and those which flourish 
upon mountains decay on being removed to a 
plain. The rein-deer, say they, is confined to the 
frozen region, and the white bear cannot live in a 
southern climate ; while the elephant, rhinoceros, 
and many other animals, do not prosper in the 
frigid zone. Hence Nature has destined and 
fitted different beings for different climates, and 
she has guarded them against the natural vicissi- 
tudes of the seasons. To this end, in cold coun. 
tries, animals are protected with more fat, and 



GENERAL VIEW. 21 

thicker hair. The same rule explains why plants 
and animals lose their qualities when removed 
from their native climate ; and why, in several 
countries, the stock requires to be continually re- 
newed. In northern countries, for instance, flax 
degenerates, and a quantity of seed is annually 
imported from southern regions. In the same 
way, to preserve, in some degree of perfection, 
the breed of Arabian and Barbary horses, fre- 
quent supplies from their original climates are 
requisite. 

Lord Kames, (Sketches of the History of Man, 
vol. I.) one of the principal champions of the 
opinion that there are different species of man, in- 
sists much on observations of this kind, and thinks 
them conclusive. He supports his assertions, by 
observing, that men, in changing climate, usually 
fall sick, and often run the risk of losing their 
lives. This argument, however, is not decisive. 
The plants and animals adapted to different cli- 
mates, are evidently of different species. This is 
not the case with the varieties of men. Moreover, 
as plants and animals can by no means alter or 
regulate the effect of external influences upon 
themselves, it is conceivable that peculiar species, 
fitted for every climate, should be created. Man, 
on the contrary, is able to remove obstacles, to 
overcome difficulties, and to modify, in a high 
degree, the effect of external circumstances upon 
his nature. On the other hand, the argument of 



22 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

analogy is not even general ; for several animals, 
such as pigs, dogs, and others, follow man, and, 
sheltered by him, live in all climates. 

It is certain that great changes of climate pro- 
duce diseases. We must observe, however, that 
it is not a great difference of climate alone that 
produces this effect, but that all sudden changes 
of season, weather, situation, and mode of living, 
also expose us to the loss of health. In America, 
says the Reverend Dr. Smith, (" On the Varieties 
of Men," p. 119.) "we are liable to disorders by 
removing incautiously from a northern to a south- 
ern State ; but it would be absurd to conclude, 
that the top of every hill, and the bank of every 
river, is therefore inhabited by a different species, 
because in the one we enjoy less health than in 
the other. The constitution becomes attempered 
in a degree even to an unhealthy region, and then 
it feels augmented symptoms of disorder on re- 
turning to the most salubrious air and water ; but 
does this prove that Nature never intended such 
men to drink clear water, or to breathe in a pure 
atmosphere?" It may be added, that there are 
diseases of professions as well as of climates. 
Shall we maintain, therefore, that there is a spe- 
cies of man for every profession ? Captain Cook, 
Captain Krusenstern, and other navigators, have 
proved, that, with sufficient care, man can bear 
great changes of air, temperature, season and 
weather. They have preserved the health of their 



GENERAL VIEW. 23 

erews in long voyages, and in the most dissimilar 
climates. The human constitution is known, from 
positive observation, to become in time assimilated 
to every climate ; and the offspring of foreigners, 
at length endure, like the aborigines, the external 
influence without injury. Thus, the argument 
that sudden changes of climate have a tendency 
to produce diseases, or even death, does not prove 
that there are several species of man. 

The Reverend Dr. Smith has clearly shown, 
from another argument, quoted from Lord Kames, 
that the latter was too credulous ; that he was de- 
ceived by erroneous reports of superficial observ- 
ers ; and that he did not sufficiently understand 
the pliancy of the human constitution, which ena- 
bles it to adapt itself to every climate, and to all 
external circumstances. The last remark that 
Lord Kames makes, is a striking example against 
his own assertion. He says, that " the Portuguese 
colony on the coast of Congo, has in course of 
time degenerated so much, that they scarcely re- 
tain the appearance of men." Another assertion 
of his, is a complete specimen of his credulity. 
He is of opinion that the Giagas, a nation in Afri- 
ca, could not have descended from the same 
original with the rest of mankind, because, unlike 
to others, they are void of natural affection ; kill 
all their own children as soon as they are born, 
and supply their places with youths stolen from 
neighboring tribes. Common sense, however, 



24 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

would answer, that if such a species were created, 
it could not continue longer than the primitive 
stock endured. The stolen youth would resemble 
their parents, not those who adopted them, and 
would soon be the sole constituents of the nation. 
Yet Lord Kames thought that the Giagas formed 
a peculiar species, who continued from generation 
to generation to kill their children ! 

All organized beings are modified by external 
influences, though their primitive nature is never 
changed. There is certainly no reason to believe 
that every kind of apple, pear, or other fruit-tree 
which we see in our gardens, has been the subject 
of a distinct creation, these varieties being pro- 
duced by degrees. The specific character, how- 
ever, is constantly the same ; and one tree can 
never be changed into another, — an apple-tree, 
for instance, into a pear-tree. 

The same law of modification prevails among 
animals. Their size, color, and other qualities, 
are very different in different climates. There 
are varieties of horses eight times smaller than 
other races. Some goats have no horns ; others 
have several. The pigs, also, of Scotland, Ire- 
land, and Hungary, are very different, but it 
would be irrational to admit as many primitive 
species of these animals as there are varieties. 
Their specific character is always the same, and 
a pig can never be changed into a sheep. 



GENERAL VIEW. 25 

As the body of man is subjected to the general 
laws of organization, why should it also not un- 
dergo considerable changes, and present great dif- 
ferences of appearance ? This matter, on account 
of its importance, deserves to be examined more at 
large. 

One of the most striking differences perceptible 
in the human race, as well as in animals, is to be 
found in the skin and hair, which are in the most 
intimate relation with each other, and indeed re- 
ceive their nourishment from the same blood-ves- 
sels. They vary in thickness and color, and evi- 
dently depend on climate. The ermine and weasel 
change the color of their hair in summer and win- 
ter. The fur of wild animals grows thicker in 
cold weather, while under the heat of the torrid 
zone, the hair is coarse. 

Among horses, oxen, rabbits, and other animals, 
some individuals of the same species are brown, 
black, or white, and why should it be thought 
absurd that there should be also variously colored 
men ? The only difference in this respect betwixt 
man and animals, seems to be, that man resists 
longer the influence of external circumstances, and 
that his skin requires a greater difference of cli- 
mate to change its color. It is a fact, however, 
that heat and extreme cold thicken the skin of 
man and darken his color. We might naturally 
expect, what is indeed the case, that changes of 
4 



26 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the skin produced by climate, should take effect 
in a longer or a shorter time, according to the 
different degrees of civilization ; for example, sav- 
ages being exposed to the influence of climate, suf- 
fer its full force : while civilized nations obviate, 
or even greatly prevent its influence. 

Among the physical qualities of man, com- 
plexion is the most easily changed. The Portu- 
guese in Africa are become black, but thev have 
preserved their original configuration. The Jews 
in northern countries are fair ; they become brown 
and tawney towards the south, but their con- 
figuration does not undergo proportionate changes. 

It seems difficult to say whether the original 
color of man was white or black ; but it is certain 
that white people grow black sooner than negroes 
become white. 

On the other hand, difference of size and form 
does not prove the existence of several species of 
man, more than that of several animals which va- 
ry greatly in this respect. The swine carried 
from Europe to Cuba acquires double its original 
magnitude. It is the same with the oxen in Para- 
guay. Climate, diet, and the manner of living, 
may produce such differences. Young animals of 
the same litter, treated with care, or neglected, 
well fed or reduced to starvation, will be quite 
different in shape and size. Children, when neg- 



GENERAL VIEW. 27 

lected, are emaciated, sallow, and their feature* 
coarse and meagre. The poor, exposed to exces- 
sive hardships, are apt to become deformed, and 
diminutive in their persons : whilst luxury and 
excess also tend to debilitate and disfigure the hu- 
man constitution. 

Determinate feelings, too. when permanent and 
habitual, change the countenance and external ap- 
pearance. 

The most effectual means of producing differ 
ences. and of preserving those which exist, is pro- 
pagation : and on this subject I shall hereafter en 
ter more into detail. 

Thus, the external differences of mankind may 
be explained by known natural causes, and are no 
proofs that there are several original species. A 
sound philosophy never assigns without necessity. 
■different causes for similar effects. Small influ- 
ences, acting constantly, will necessarily produce. 
jn time, conspicuous changes in mankind : just as 
a succession oi drops of water falling on the hard- 
est rock makes a cavity. The first alteration in 
the external appearance of man is observed in the 
countenance, the next in the complexion, and the 
last in the size and configuration. 

It may be added, that man may live every 
where, the flexibility of his body supporting dif- 



28 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ferent impressions ; — moreover, no obstacle, nei- 
ther river nor sea, prevents him from continuing 
his excursions ; — he transports with him animals 
and vegetables, and prepares by art what he can- 
not use in the natural state ; and he knows how 
to shelter himself and other useful beings against 
noxious influences from without. 

The internal structure of the body of man, also 
indicates that there is only one species. To prove 
that there are several, it would be necessary to 
show that the number of the essential parts is not 
the same in all ; that Europeans, for instance, 
possess certain parts which Negroes have not. 
Whoever could demonstrate, that one part of the 
brain in Europeans is wanting in Negroes, would 
Drove that there is a natural difference between 
them ; I hope during my stay jn the Uniieu States, 
to be able to examine the brains of Negroes and to 
ascertain that the same essential parts exist in 
them, subject, merely, to modifications, as it is 
the case in different individuals of the white race. 

Another argument to prove that there is only 
one species of Man, may be founded on the mani- 
festations of the mind. Every where, and at all 
times, the same primitive faculties, however modi- 
fied the actions flowing from them may be, are to 
be observed. Negroes, in general, are inferior to 
Europeans ; yet some of the former excel in mu- 
sic, mathematics, and philosophy. Blumenbach 



(GENERAL VIEW. 29 

(Goetting. Magazine, t. iv. p. 421.) and Bishop 
Gregory have collected the names of Negroes fa- 
mous for their talents. Herder and Raynal, in 
various passages of their works, quote instances of 
extraordinary virtue and morality observed among 
savages and barbarous nations. 

It has been reported, that there are nations with- 
out religious feelings ; but more exact inves- 
tigation has shown, that religious ceremonies 
existed, but had been mistaken for mere social 
amusements, such as dancing, singing, and fight- 
ing. It has frequently happened, that descrip- 
tions of savage nations have been given by trav- 
ellers, who neither knew their language, nor 
the signification of their manners and customs. 
Almost all reports of this kind are founded on sin- 
gle observations. How erroneous, therefore, must 
they be, and how little to be relied on, particularly 
when they describe the customs of nations hostile 
to strangers. It is known, that savages frequently 
steal from foreigners, while they continue faithful 
to each other, like several criminals in Europe, 
who show great attachment and justice towards 
each other, and rather suffer the greatest torments 
than betray their companions and friends, but who 
do not spare either the goods or the lives of other 
individuals. If a traveller, accustomed to the 
most brilliant ceremonies of religion, w r ere to meet 
with a sect of the followers of Confucius, who 
have neither temple nor priests, nor any form of 
4* 



30 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

external worship ; who adore the Supreme Being 
in mere inward contemplation, and in the practice 
of moral virtue, and he had no direct means of 
communication with them, might he not easily be 
led to think, that they professed no religion what- 
ever ? Hence, it is important to distinguish be- 
twixt, the faculties themselves and their applica- 
tion. Attachment, for instance, may act with re- 
spect to our native country, — to our friends, — to 
animals, — or to other objects, — yet the primitive 
impulse is the same in all these instances, although 
the external applications are very different. Cour- 
age may be shown in self-defence, or in defending 
others. He who is fond of approbation, may adorn 
himself with ear-rings, with girdles, with chains, 
or embroidery. Religious people, in like manner, 
may pay divine honors to a bull, to a serpent, to 
the sun, to saints, or to the God of Christians ; — 
they may howl to the glory of invisible beings, or 
worship one Deity, by singing psalms, or by the 
practice of moral virtue, and all of these acts may 
flow from the same primitive tendency to venera- 
tion. 

Finally, propagation is considered as a means of 
determining whether animals belong to the same 
or to different species, according as they can or 
cannot engender together, or as their issue can or 
cannot procreate. Tried by this test, also, we 
must conclude that mankind form but one spe- 
cies. 



GENERAL VIEW. 31 

However, it ought to be observed, that natural 
history can show only the possibility of mankind 
being derived from one original species, which, 
by degrees, has undergone various changes ; but 
it cannot prove the reality of this fact, any more 
than it can ascertain whether the original color of 
man was white or black, or whether one or two 
pairs of each species of animals were created at 
the beginning. 

Thus, in the following considerations, I shall 
take it for granted, that mankind is only one spe- 
cies, comprehending various races, endowed with 
the same primitive powers of body and mind. 
Yet, as the sense of smell, attachment, or courage, 
&c, is stronger in one dog, or in one race of dogs, 
than in another ; so such or such a faculty may be 
more active in one man, or in one tribe, than in 
another, though both races are essentially of the 
same species. 

There remains an important introductory point 
to be considered, viz., whether education, princi- 
pally instruction, is useful ; or, in other words, 
whether it is better to leave the common people 
in ignorance, or to instruct all classes of society ? 

To answer this query in a satisfactory manner, 
let us remember that the human mind embraces 
feelings and intellectual faculties ; that intellect 
does not produce feelings, but that the latter are 



3£ EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the main causes of our actions. Hence it is a great 
mistake to, confine education to intellectual in- 
struction. /Education, then, if well conducted, em- 
braces both feelings and intellect, and improves 
both the body and mind. A few observations 
however, will prove that intellectual education is 
preferable to ignorance. 

There is a great difference in the actions of all 
nations, through the different states of civilization. 
The history of each at the beginning is stigmatized 
with assassination, parricides, incest, and violation 
of the most sacred oaths. The selfish passions, 
then, appear to have enjoyed an overwhelming 
power ; and all enjoyments sprung from the grati- 
fication of the lower propensities. In periods of 
ignorance, too, all nations confined moral virtue 
to themselves, and supposed the rest of nature 
destined to be their prey. Legislation corres- 
ponding with the national character at the begin- 
ning, is sanguinary ; and capital punishment is 
common. Nay, it falls not on the criminals alone, 
but also on their relations, and on whole districts. 
Their religion is founded on terror, their gods 
are endowed with all the lower feelings and affec- 
tions such as selfishness, jealousy, wrath, and fond- 
ness for dreadful actions and expiatory sacrifices. 
If thev hope for immortality, the scenes which 
they expect are conformable to their actual feel- 
ings ; triumph over enemies, gratification of lower 
passions, and sensual pleasures. The whole ten- 



GENERAL VIEW. 33 

dency of the mind is atrocity ; and their actions 
might almost be denominated a series of horrid 
crimes. I doubt whether those who consider the 
savage state so worthy of commendation, would 
be disposed to give up the comforts of civilization, 
and be satisfied with the food, clothing, habita- 
tions and accommodations of Barbarians ; whether 
they would prefer roots, acorns, nuts, insects and 
other animals, at the sight of which we shudder, 
as their food, to the preparation of a skilful cook ; 
whether they would be better pleased with clothes 
made of the skins of animals, of leaves or of grass, 
than with woollen, cotton, linen, or silk habili- 
ments ? Whether they would like to exchange 
our comfortable rooms for a hollow tree, for the 
cavity of a rock, a den under ground, a hut of 
reeds, or of turf and branches of trees ? Finally, 
Whether they would seriously think the rough at- 
tempts of savages at painting and sculpture, equal 
to the statues of Phidias, and the paintings of 
Raphael ? 

In following the history of mankind, we observe, 
that, in proportion as nations cultivate their moral 
and intellectual powers, atrocious actions diminish 
in number ; the manners and pleasures become 
more refined, the legislation milder, the religion 
purified from superstition, and the arts address 
themselves to the finer emotions of the mind. 

( By observing also the different classes of society, 
and the inhabitants of different provinces, we 



34 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

learn, that ignorance is the greatest enemy of mo 
rality.") Wherever education is neglected, de- 
pravity, and every kind of actions which degrade 
mankind, are the most frequent. Among ignorant 
persons, cceteris paribus, rapacity, cheating, and 
thieving, drunkenness, and sensual pleasures, are 
prominent features in the character. ) 

Those then who object to the instruction of the 
lower orders, can merely act from selfish mo- 
tives. Being aware of their superiority, they may 
wish the inferior classes to be obedient to their 
arbitrary regulations ; for unquestionably, it is 
much easier to lead the ignorant and uncultivated 
than the instructed and reasoning people. Know- 
ledge too, and the habit of reflection, detect abuses 
and errors, which selfishness and pride may wish 
to keep concealed. (But whoever thinks it right 
to cultivate his own mind, cannot with justice 
desire others to remain in ignorance. He, there- 
fore, who is versed in history, or understands the 
law of Christian charity, will join those who con- 
tend for the benefit of an instruction adapted to 
every class of society. This then will not be con- 
fined to reading and writing, but particularly ex- 
tended over the moral conduct and all duties and 
rights in practical life. 

The education of the body is called Physical, 
that of the mind, Moral. It is impossible to de- 
cide by observation, whether education modifies 
the mind itself. We can only show, that we may 



GENERAL VIEW. 35 

exercise an influence on the instruments by which 
the powers of the mind manifest themselves. 
Hence, the study of the organization is necessary, 
even with respect to the moral education of man ; 
and for that reason, I avoid the common division 
of education into physical and moral, though I 
find it proper to divide the following considera- 
tions on education into two Sections. In the first, 
I shall speak of the conditions which contribute 
to the greater or less activity of the powers of the 
body and of the mind ; and in the second, of their 
aim and direction. 



36 



SECTION I. 

ON THE CONDITIONS OF EXCITEMENT J OR THOSE WHICH 
CONTRIBUTE TO THE ACTIVITY OF THE INNATE POWERS 
OF THE BODY AS WELL AS OF THE MIND. 

These important inquiries are not sufficiently 
understood, and are therefore too generally alto- 
gether overlooked. They, however, deserve the 
most serious attention of every natural philoso- 
pher. Our reflections on them may be divided 
into four Chapters, corresponding to the natural 
divisions of the conditions of excitement them- 
selves. The first condition is founded on the 
Laws of hereditary descent ; the second on those 
of the Vegetative Functions ; the third on Exer- 
cise ; and the fourth on the Mutual Influence of 
the Powers. 



37 



CHAPTER I. 



ON THE LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 

The developement of the human body is fa- 
vored, retarded, or disordered, according to the 
general laws of organization, in the same way as 
that of other living beings. Consequently chil- 
dren participate in the bodily configuration and 
constitution of their parents, and also in their ten- 
dencies to particular manifestations of the mind, 
these being dependent on the individual parts of 
the brain. The elucidation of these subjects is 
indispensable to a sound system of education. 
Nay, I am convinced, that this condition exerts a 
greater and more permanent influence than any 
other which can be introduced with the view of 
perfecting mankind. Let us first consider how 
other organized beings are improved. 

Florists, pomologists, and horticulturists, are 
aware that Nature produces the varieties of plants, 
and they observe the circumstances which are fa- 
vourable to the improvement of certain qualities. 



38 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

They know that the first and most important 
point is ripe and well-conditioned seed ; — the 
second a fertile and convenient soil. In short, it 
is a fact, that, in order to improve the vegetable 
kingdom, propagation is attended to. 

In perfecting animals, or in promoting their 
peculiar qualities, such as the color or figure of 
horses, the wool of sheep, the smell of dogs, #c. 
country people have recourse to the laws of pro- 
pagation. By these means, farmers have suc- 
ceeded in diminishing or increasing various parts 
of animals, such as their bones, muscles, &c. 

We might naturally suppose, that it would be 
sufficient to mention the fact, that the organiza- 
tion of man is submitted to the same general laws 
as that of animals, to induce reasonable beings to 
take at least the same care of their own offspring 
as of their sheep, pigs, dogs and horses. But 
man wishes to make himself an exception from the 
immutable laws of the Creator, and the result of 
his ignorance and self-conceit is lamentable.) As 
this subject is of the utmost importance, I shall 
enter into a few details upon it. 

For the sake of bodily health, many natural 
philosophers, a long time ago, insisted on the 
necessity of a better regulation of marriage. \ 
Their benevolent desire was supported by the 
constant observation, that health depends on or- 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 39 

ganization, and that the latter is propagated by- 
birth. " Sir John Sebright," says Dr. Adams, 
(On the Pretended Hereditary Diseases, p. 33.) 
" informs us, that if a flock of sheep, in which 
there is any defect, are permitted to breed in 
and in, the defect will gradually increase among 
them ; and Colonel Humphries, by selecting for 
breeding a marked variety, has succeeded in pro- 
curing a flock with deformed bones." / Dr. Adams 
adds, that if the same causes operate in man, 
we may impute to it many endemic peculiarities 
found in certain districts, which have hitherto 
been imputed to the water, and other localities. 

(Those who have more confidence in facts than 
in speculative reasoning, cannot doubt that the 
qualities of the body are hereditary?) There are 
family-faces, family-likenesses ; and also single 
parts, such as bones, muscles, hair and skin, 
which resemble in parents and in children.* The 
disposition to various disorders, as to gout, scro- 
fula, dropsy, hydrocephalus, consumption, deaf- 
ness, epilepsy, apoplexy, idiotism, insanity, &c. is 
frequently the inheritance of birth. There are 
few families where there is not one part of the 
body weaker than the rest, — the lungs, for in- 
stance, the eyes, the stomach, liver, intestines, 
some other viscus, the brain, &c. 

(Children born of healthy parents, and belong- 
ing to a strong stock, always bring into the world 



20 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

a system formed by nature to resist the causes of 
disease ; while the children of delicate, sickly 
parents, are overpowered by the least unfavorable 
circumstance. Medical men know very well, 
that in curing diseases, nature is oftentimes more 
powerful than art, and that the latter is ineffectual, 
if not assisted by the former. Longevity also de- 
pends more on innate constitution than on the 
skill of physicians. ) Is it not then astonishing, 
that this knowledge, as a practical piece of infor- 
mation, is not taught to and disseminated among 
young people ? ) Indeed, it ought to be familiarly 
and generally known ; not because it is expected 
that every one would be reasonable enough to re- 
gulate his conduct by it, but in order to induce 
as many as possible to do so.- A great number are 
too selfish to be guided in their own enjoyments 
by a regard to the condition of their offspring ; 
but many, on the other hand, who reflect on the 
future, may be induced to avoid, even from a 
selfish motive, a union with a person who will be 
likely to embitter their future days.' Even the 
unthinking must perceive, that the enjoyments of 
life are rendered impossible, when diseases make 
their ravages in a family ; and that love for the 
most part ceases, when poverty takes up its abode 
in the house. ^ Others, who wish to live in their 
posterity, will, when acquainted with the immu- 
table laws of the Creator, submit to them, in order 
to lay a foundation for the prosperity of their de- 
scendants. The physical education, then, of both 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 41 

sexes deserves the greatest attention and it is 
impardonable to neglect that of girls. ' 

The laws of hereditary 'descent should be at- 
tended to, not only with respect to organic life, 
but also to the manifestations of the mind, since 
these depend on the nervous system, there are 
many examples on record, of certain feelings, or 
intellectual powers, being inherent in whole fami- 
lies. Now, if it be ascertained that the hereditary 
condition of the brain is the cause, there is a 
great additional motive to be careful in the choice 
of a partner in marriage. No person of sense 
can be indifferent about having selfish or benevo- 
lent, stupid or intelligent children. 

An objection may be made against the doctrine 
of hereditary effects resulting from the laws of 
propagation, viz. That men of great talents often 
have children of little understanding, and that in 
large families there are individuals of very dif- 
ferent capacities. 

This observation shows at least that the chil- 
dren are born with different dispositions, and it 
proves nothing against the laws of propagation. 
The young ones' of animals that propagate indis- 
criminately, are very different ; but when the 
races are pure, and all conditions attended to, 
the nature of the young can be determined before- 



5* 



42 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

hand. As long as the races of mankind are 
mixed, their progeny must vary extremely. But 
let persons of determinate dispositions breed in 
and in, and the races will become distinct. (More- 
over, the condition of the mother is commonly less 
valued than it ought to be. (It is, however, ob- 
served, that boys commonly resemble their mother 
and girls their father, and that men of great talents 
generally descend from intelligent mothers^ But 
as long as eminent men are married to partners of 
inferior capacities, the' qualities of the offspring 
must be uncertain.^ The Arabs seem to understand 
the great importance of females, since they do not 
allow to sell a female horse to foreigners and note 
the nobility of their horses after the females.\ 

The age of propagation too is not indifferent. 
Animals are not permitted to propagate at all 
ages, neither too young nor to old, but in the 
period of their strength, v. Men of talents and 
science often marry when their body, particularly 
the nervous system, is exhausted by protracted 
studies and debilitating causes. They are seldom 
rich from birth, and their condition rarely allows 
them to choose during the period of their greatest 
energy ; yet they might often accomplish more 
than they do to the benefit of their offspring, were 
they better acquainted with the laws of the here- 
ditary descent, and the dependence of the mind 
on the organization of the body, and would they 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 43 

submit to appreciate such laws more than fashion- 
able manners and customs^ 

The age of the parents is to be considered both 
in regard to their own health, and to the constitu- 
tion of their children. Young trees which bring 
forth fruit are weak ; animals that propagate their 
species too early in life, generally do not grow 
strong. Many women who marry when very 
young, and bear a very numerous family, become 
early victims to an exhausted constitution. 

Farther, the fruit of young plants is imperfect. 
The eggs of young birds are very small ; the pro- 
geny of young quadrupeds is feeble and diminu- 
tive ; and, in like manner, the offspring of living 
beings, when old, is weak. Such a progeny, 
therefore, is never destined, by country people, to 
the preservation of the species. Moses forbade 
the Jews to bring up the firstling males of animals. 
(Deut. xv. 19 — 23.) When both parents marry 
early in life, and have a numerous family, the 
eldest children commonly possess less talent than 
those who are born during the period of vigor of 
their parents.) 

The laws of degeneration belong to those of he- 
reditary descent and deserve a peculiar attention. 
They again are general throughout all nature. 
(Plants cultivated on the same spot degenerate. 
Wheat must alternate with barley, flax, potatoes, 



44 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

or other plants. Where firs will no longer grow, 
beeches will succeed, i The seed of plants that de- 
generate, ought not to Be taken for propagation, 
for they at length perish entirely : nor ought the 
sickly organization of one tree to be engrafted on 
another. In this way, we see an explanation why 
the same sort of fruit-trees dies in whole districts, 
the external circumstances of which are unfavora- 
ble^ The sickly condition of the tree is constant- 
ly propagated, and it dies at last by the continual 
and noxious influence from without. All trees, or 
parts of the same tree, perish a little sooner, or 
resist a little longer than others, on account of the 
influence of the branch on which they are en- 
grafted. 

The same law of degeneration prevails in ani- 
mals. Various circumstances weaken their con- 
stitution, and, among various conditions, to pre- 
vent degeneration, it is necessary to cross the breed, 
and to renew the blood. 

The degeneration of man, too, is certain, in fam- 
ilies who intermarry among themselves* Uncles 
and nieces, or first cousins, or cousins who commit 
this error for several generations, have no chil- 
dren, or their progeny is commonly feeble.) The 
smaller the number of choice, the quicker the de- 
generation takes place, and no class of society can 
be made an exception from this law.) Any bodily 
or mental affliction which may happen to originate 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 45 

in one individual soon affects such families. This 
frequently happens among the rich and high 
ranks ; and, as their manner of living is not con- 
ducive to bodily strength, it is quite natural that 
there should be so many living proofs of the truth 
of this proposition, which invites the friends of 
humanity to admire the law of compensation. 

The great influence of propagation is ascertained 
also by the fact, that it is infinitely more easy by 
it to keep up natural changes, and even deformi- 
ties, than to produce them by art. (Deaf people 
often have children with the same defect ; while 
circumcision among the Jews and Mahomedans has 
not yet become superfluous. It is more probable 
that a man born without an arm should have chil- 
dren like himself than that he should do so whose 
arm has been taken off by the knife of the sur- 
geon. 

|The laws of hereditary descent are still visible, 
since the greater number of first-born children are 
girls ; since in one year more girls, in another 
more boys are born ; since, when old and weak 
men marry young and vigorous females, the great- 
er number of their children are girls, &c. These 
effects must have adequate causes, and by more 
patient attention to the phenomena than has hith- 
erto been paid, some valuable conclusions might 
be arrived at. May not the particular and tran- 
sient state of the same parents, at different periods, 



46 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

account, in some degree, for the differences in their 
children ? At all events, the bodily constitution 
of both parents, in every respect, ought to be at- 
tended to. Moses (Leviticus xii. 2d & 5th) or- 
dered a longer period for the purification of a girl 
than for that of a boy. Is there a natural reason 
for his having done so ? Can any inference be 
drawn from the observation, that the greatest 
number of monsters are amongst the female sex ? 

It is indeed a pity that the laws of hereditary 
descent are so much neglected, whilst, by atten- 
tion to them, not only the condition of single 
families, but of whole nations, might be improved 
beyond imagination, in figure, stature, complexion, 
health, talents, and moral feelings. I consider 
with Aristotle, that the natural and innate dif- 
ferences of man are the basis of all political econo- 
my.^ He who can convince the world of the im- 
portance of the laws of hereditary descent, and in- 
duce mankind to conduct themselves accordingly, 
will do more good to them, and contribute more 
to their improvement, than all institutions, and 
all systems of education. Yet they embrace more 
than a choice, according to the beauty of con- 
figuration and to the vigor of body and mind.j 
The state of health of both parents, their age, 
their previous manner of living, contribute to the 
developement of the embryon ; and the state of 
health of the mother and her vital functions, as 
digestion, respiration, circulation, fyc. during preg- 
nancy as likewise of great weight. 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 47 

" It is probable," says Dr. Rush, a that the 
qualities of body and mind in parents, which pro- 
duce genius in children, may be fixed and regula- 
ted ; and it is possible the time may come, when 
we shall be able to predict with certainty the in- 
tellectual character of children, by knowing the 
specific nature of the different intellectual faculties 
of their parents. The marriages of Danish men 
with the East Indian women produced children 
that had the countenances and vigorous minds of 
Europeans ; but no such results appeared in the 
children of the East Indian women who intermar- 
ried^with the males of any other European nation." 
(" On the Influence of Physical Causes on the In- 
tellectual Faculties," p. 119.) 

Three successive generations appear to be neces- 
sary to produce an effectual change be it for health 
or disease. " Si le goitre," says Dr. Fodere, 
" n'est qu' accidental, et qu'il n'y ait qu'un des 
parens affecte, les enfans ne naissent pas goitreux. 
Si de pere en fils un goitreux a epouse une goi- 
treuse pendant deux generations, et dans un pays 
ou le goitre est endemique, a la troisieme genera- 
tion l'enfant qui nait, n'est pas seulement goitreux, 
mais il est encore cretin." (" Traite du Goitre, et 
du Cretinisme," Paris, 1800, p. 69.) According 
to the laws of the creation, therefore, it is said, 
that " the Lord visits those who hate him (in my 
opinion who do not submit to his laws,) to the 
third and fourth generation ; " viz. by their he- 
reditary dispositions. 



48 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Such causes as produce what is called the old 
age of nations deserve to be remarked. Luxury 
belongs to them, and its influence, if continued 
during several generations, weakens body and 
mind, not only of families, but of whole nations. 
The degeneration of the organic condition of man, 
in general, is not sufficiently understood, and is of 
greater effect than the political economists of 
modern days are aware of. This neglect is un- 
doubtedly the most influential cause why families 
and nations disappear. 

The Reverend Dr. Smith, who ascribes par- 
ticularly the variations of man to external circum- 
stances, says, " that Germans, Swedes, and 
Frenchmen in different parts of the United States, 
who live chiefly among themselves, and cultivate 
the habits and ideas of the conntries from which 
they emigrated, retain, even in our climate, a 
strong resemblance to their primitive stock. Those, 
on the contrary, who have not confined themselves 
to the contracted circle of their countrymen, but 
have mingled freely with the Anglo-Americans, 
entered into their manners, and adopted their 
ideas, have assumed such a likeness to them, that it 
is not easy now to distinguish, from one another, 
people who have sprung from such different ori- 
gins. 

On a closer examination, it will be found, that 
one stock may adopt the manners of another, a 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 49 

Saxon, for instance, the fashions of the French, 
but that the original features of the tribes will 
be preserved, as long as they do not intermarry. 
\The genuine races of Highlanders and Lowland- 
ers of Scotland will not lose their originality by 
exchanging their countries, but by intermarrying 
with each other. 

The Jews are a striking example, that climate 
and external influences are less powerful in chang- 
ing man than propagation. They are dispersed 
in every country of the globe, and though, owing 
to the climate they have inhabited, their com- 
plexion may have changed, yet, being prohibited 
by sacred institutions from intermarrying with 
other nations, they are still distinguishable from 
other people. 

The ancient legislators were very attentive to 
the laws of propagation. Moses complains (Gen. 
vi.) that the sons of God saw the daughters of 
men, that they were fair, that they took them 
wives of all which they chose : he divided his 
people into tribes, but prohibited, on pain of 
death, the intermarriage of the near relations. 
(Levit. xviii.) 

The Greeks, as appears from their customs, 
philosophy and legislation, had particularly in 
view the beauty and vigor of the human constitu- 
tion. "As we," says Plutarch, ("De Nobili- 
6 



50 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

tate," ) a are anxious to have dogs and horses from 
a good breed, why should we marry the daugh- 
ters of bad parents ?)' Plato spoke against mar- 
riages betwixt relations.^ He, as well as Solon 
and Aristotle, considered also the age at which 
it was best to marry. The ancient philosophers 
commonly fixed it between eighteen and twenty- 
four for a woman, and between thirty and thirty- 
six for a man. ) 

It may be replied, that these considerations 
can never become practical rules of conduct for 
society at large. In the actual situation of things 
I will not maintain the contrary. But we must 
also admit, that the laws of the Creator will not 
change to gratify our fancy. ( If we will not sub- 
mit to his dictates, we have no right to complain 
of being punished by unavoidable though dis- 
agreeable results. ) Christian principles are not 
sufficiently exercised in society, yet it is not, on 
this account, considered superfluous to teach 
them ; and he who loves mankind will wish for 
their promulgation. Now, the laws of hereditary 
descent are in the same situation. Nay, if ob- 
served, they would even tend to prepare mankind 
to receive and keep the precepts of Christianity, 
which, in the actual and common way of Provi- 
dence, seems impossible. 

I find it also necessary to obviate another 
objection which may be made by religious per- 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 51 

sons, who are not aware that the letter kills, 
while the spirit vivifies. Some, who are entirely 
unacquainted with natural causes, and who expect 
all from supernatural influence, may be offended 
by so much being ascribed to the laws of organi- 
zation, vjf they reflect, and will be consistent 
with themselves, they cannot reject any thing 
that is in nature , and the work of the Creator. 
The organization is constituted by the same Al- 
mighty Being whom they implore to be propi- 
tious. (If they will submit to Him, they must ac- 
knowledge every law of creation^; The primary 
arrangements of Nature as certainly proceed from 
Him, as any subsequent revelation. Shall we, 
then, have no recourse to natural means to cure 
diseases, because St. James has admonished us, 
if any one is sick, to call for the elders of the 
church, to let them pray over him, anointing him 
with oil ? We read in the Old Testament, that 
Eli as prayed that it might not rain, and it rained 
not on the earth for the space of three years and 
six months ; and he prayed again, and the heavens 
gave rain, and the earth brought forth her fruit. 
Shall we therefore not study the laws of vegeta- 
tion, and cultivate the vegetable kingdom ? Shall 
we neglect to sow, and expect that by means of 
prayers we shall be permitted to rear ? In the 
same way, if, while we say prayers, we do not 
at the same time submit to the laws of hereditary 
descent and of organization, supernatural influence 
alone will not give talents nor bodily health. The 



52 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

laws of the Creator have been the first dictated, 
and must be the first obeyed. \(l parent who per- 
ceives that his child is affected with disease and a 
weak constitution, and who, while he prays to 
God for restoration of his health, leaves him in 
confined air, and under the charge of careless or 
ignorant servants, has no right to expect that su- 
pernatural influence will be exerted in his favor, 
while he continues to neglect his own duty in con- 
temning the first laws of creation.] The Supreme 
Being gave us understanding that we might per- 
ceive these laws ; and having perceived them, it is 
our first duty to obey them as His dictates ; and 
having done so, we may then, but not till then, 
expect His blessing to attend us^; The special obe- 
dience to the natural laws of hereditary descent is 
an indispensable condition to the improvement of 
mankind ; and nothing but ignorance, superstition 
and prejudice can oppose itj 

The influence of these laws may be shown to 
young persons, first in plants, then in' animals, 
and at the end in mankind. \Many parents are 
cautious and fearful of speaking of such notions to 
their children, and do not think of the anxiety 
with which children look for information of that 
kind, and of the benefit they may derive from it.) 
Such information, when given by the parents, will 
be received with confidence and respect. Some 
young persons will possess reflection enough to at- 
tend to their bodily health, from the consideration 



LAWS OF HEREDITARY DESCENT. 53 

that their constitution will be communicated to 
their offspring. I know positively, that such a 
proceeding has been more effectual and beneficial 
than endeavoring to prevent children from acquir- 
ing any knowledge of that kind, or to conceal the 
effects of the disorderly satisfaction of physical 
love.^ This propensity deserves the same attention 
which we pay to hunger and thirst.) Both are ac- 
tive without our will ; and their activity must be 
directed. Why should we not have recourse to 
the understanding as far as possible, to regulate 
the actions, and employ natural means of correc- 
tion against natural faults ? : How can we expect 
that children should suppress a strong internal 
feeling, without being acquainted with the bad 
consequences of its abuses, and with its destina- 
tion ? ) It seems therefore advisable to show the 
dreadful effects of Onanism to those who are in- 
clined to this aberration ; at first with respect to 
their own health, and afterwards in relation to 
their offspring. 

It has been my object in this Chapter to bring 
under consideration a mo*t important point, which 
must precede, and >vhich will influence whatever 
remains to be done in education. Yet I do not 
deny the efficacy of various other conditions which 
1 shall examine in the following pages. 



6* 



54 EDUCATION OF MAN. 



CHAPTER II. 



ON THE LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 

It is reasonable, when we desire the improve- 
ment of any living being, to employ all the means 
which may contribute towards its perfection. We 
have seen in the preceding Chapter, that man is 
born sickly or healthy, deformed or well shaped, 
an idiot or a genius, — in short, that the human be- 
ing enters life with the greatest modifications of 
bodily and mental endowments. The innate con- 
stitution, then, which depends on both parents, 
and the state of the mother during pregnancy^ is 
the basis of all future developement. 

Being placed in the world, man is subjected in 
every respect to the laws of organization. Organ- 
ization is influenced by light, air, climate, nour- 
ishment, bodily evercise, rest, sleep, cleanliness, 
and excretions. The body f man, like other or- 
ganized beings, undergoes various changes : it be- 
gins, increases, arrives at its full growth, decreases, 
and dies. There is a certain regularity in the suc- 
cession of these natural changes ; and accordingly, 
the duration of life is divided into diilereni pe- 
riods, commonly called ages. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 55 

These changes cannot be entirely prevented, but 
they may be accelerated or retarded by external 
influences. The regulation of all the conditions 
which contribute to the developement of the body 
and of its parts, and to the duration of life, consti- 
tutes what is termed Physical Education. 

I shall not endeavor to explain Life. I am sat- 
isfied to say, that it embraces all the vital functions 
from conception to death. It certainly depends 
on various conditions, several of which are not 
yet sufficiently understood. The chemical ex- 
planation is not more satisfactory than that founded 
on mere mechanical laws. Life is more than the ef- 
fect of a machine, more than a crystalization. The 
life of man is also more than the organization of a 
jplant, and even more than that of an animal. 
Some fluids belong to its necessary conditions, such 
as caloric and the electric fluid ; but it remains 
undecided how far some ancient and modern 
physiologists are right or wrong in speaking of a 
peculiar Vital Principle, Avhich in ancient times 
often was called the Soul of the World ; and which 
sometimes has been confounded with the immortal 
soul of mari.\ 

The modern physiologists consider rather the 
functions of man than the principles of which he 
is composed. They place together the functions 
without consciousness, and call them Automatic 
Life ; while the functions with consciousness are 
known under the name of Animal or Phrenic Life. 



56 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

It is not yet generally admitted, that the phrenic, 
like the automatic functions depend on the or- 
ganization. Physical education, however, evi- 
dently rises in importance, if the manifestations of 
the mind are modified in energy and quality by 
the influence of the body. 

In this respect various opinions have prevailed, 
and still prevail. There is an ancient belief in 
oriental countries, that the body prevents the soul 
from communicating with superior beings, and 
from exercising freely its powers, i Pythagoras, 
Plato, and almost all metaphysicians, fancied, that 
in this life thoughts might be manifested without 
the medium of organization.; The body was con- 
sidered as a prison of the soul. Hence the great 
tendency to deliver the immortal soul from the 
mortal body; hence the spontaneous vexations 
and torments of the body ; and hence many non- 
sensical ideas of castigation. 

This opinion, however ancient it may be, is yet 
erroneous. Experience, which must constantly 
guide our reasoning, proves the dependence of the 
mental operations on the body during this life. 
Phrenology teaches the particulars of this doc- 
trine. 

The duration of life is commonly divided into 
Infancy, Adolescence, Adult and Old Age. With 
respect to physical education, the time from birth 
to that of full growth, is the most important. It 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 57 

is preparatory for the rest of our days, and has 
also a great influence on our offspring. It may be 
subdivided into several periods, the first of which 
is that from birth to two years, or to that of the 
first dentition, — I call it Infancy : The second from 
two to seven years, or to the second dentition, viz. 
Childhood : The third from seven years to pu- 
berty, viz. Adolescence : The fourth from pu- 
berty to full growth, or to the Period of Mar- 
riage. Before I enter into details on these periods, 
I shall notice some general considerations, and be- 
gin with Longevity. 

It is not probable that the life of man has dimin- 
ished with the duration of the world ; Qt is more 
reasonable to suppose, that the years mentioned in 
the Old Testament were shorter than ours. It is 
a common observation, that the same term has 
quite different-meanings among different nations, 
and even -■in: the same nation at different periods 
of itkUfei&tory. The English and Germans, for in- 
stanSj measure the distances of localities by miles ; 
bubifa is; known that about six English miles make 
only one mile in Germany. ' In the same way, it 
ihay be that the expression year, did not always 
denote the same lapse of time. It is also possible 
that the duration of a family, that is, of all male 
descendants, was considered as the continuation of 
the same life, as it is still a common saying, that 
parents continue to live in their children. Men, 
like quadrupeds, commonly live in the state of 



58 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

nature five or six times longer than they grow ; 
and many individuals of the human race arrive 
still at an age corresponding to these proportions. 
I But there is no reason to suppose that the Jews 
made an exception from the physical laws in gen- 
eral, whilst on the other hand, it is more proba- 
ble that life, generally speaking, is shortened by 
artificial means, rather than by the lapse of time 
since the creation. 

Among the causes which contribute to longevity, 
the most important is the innate bodily constitu- 
tion. In this respect, savages have an advantage 
over civilized nations. The health of the former 
is more durable, and they do not experience a 
number of bodily and mental disorders with 
which the latter are molested, 

A moderate temperature is more conducive to 
old age than great heat. The latter accelerates 
the natural changes of organized beings, and brings 
them sooner to death. { Pure, dry and cold air, 
moderate exercise of all the bodily and mental 
faculties, a good physical education in general, 
and quietude of the mind, are all very favorable 
to longevity. 

On the contrary, hereditary dispositions to dis- 
eases, a weakly constitution, great and sudden 
changes of temperature, intemperance, want of bodi- 
ly exercise, noxious occupations, too great applica- 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 59 

tion of the mental powers, misery, unwholesome 
food, a want of sufficient rest, every kind of de- 
bilitating influences, disagreeable affections of the 
mind, such as jealousy, envy, fear, grief, &c, are 
hurtful to health. 

The influence of nature in preserving the spe- 
cies, and also the individuals, is great, and has 
been spoken of at all times, under the name of vis 
plastica or vis medicatrix natures. It is visible in 
the healthy and diseased state. Yet, however 
effectual nature, and however favorable all cir- 
cumstances may be, the succession of the different 
ages cannot be prevented, and death is at last un- 
avoidable. Physical education can produce only 
modifications, but can never annihilate the immu- 
table laws of the Creator. 

The modifications produced in the body by ex- 
ternal circumstances, deserve a special attention. 
Plants and animals which can live in various cli- 
mates, are extremely modified by the influence of 
outward conditions. Fruit-trees which have been 
transplanted from the south to the north, bring 
forth the same kind of fruit, but of modified 
qualities. The grapes of France excel those of 
England. 

Leibnitz has already remarked, that plants and 
animals show the same type of configuration, are 
long and slender, or short and stout, in different 



60 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

countries. We may add, that it is the same with 
man. In Angora, the beard of the men is modi- 
fied like the hair of animals. In countries where 
the grass of the meadows is long, the cattle are 
tall, and animals in general have long extremities. 
Mankind shows a similar make. 

The influence of physical education may be ex- 
amined with respect to the body as a whole, or to 
the individual systems, such as the muscles, blood- 
vessels, bones, nerves, digestive organs, &c. (it is 
certain and generally known, that climate and the 
manner of living modify the whole organization 
of man. Climate, in its general acceptation, des- 
ignates not only temperature, but all external in- 
fluences, particularly air, light, dryness and 
moisture, and food. A particular effect produced 
by a high temperature on living beings is, that 
they undergo their natural changes witli greater 
celerity than in colder regions. Annual plants of 
the south, the aloes, for instance, when carried 
into northern countries, last many years. 

It is quite superfluous to insist on the modifica- 
tions produced in organized beings, by food, and 
other external circumstances. Who does not 
know that the constituent parts of milk, such as 
butter, cheese, and whey, of the same cow, vary 
according to the food with which she is nourish- 
ed ; that the flesh of roes, hares, rabbits, fowls, 
&c, though each sort preserves its specific taste, is 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 61 

greatly modified by the food on which the animal 
lives ? 

This principle, however, is not sufficiently at- 
tended to in the physical education of children ; 
they are commonly treated according to a general 
plan, while external circumstances ought to be 
regulated according to the individual tempera- 
ment. 

In this respect, a very important question may 
be examined, viz. How far may external circum- 
stances contribute to the developement of indivi- 
dual parts of the body ? It is known that differ- 
ent systems of the body, such as the muscles, the 
nerves, the digestive organs, &c. do not possess 
precisely equal activity in the same individual. 
It would be extremely interesting to ascertain, 
that such or such a climate, such or such food, fyc. 
is more or less favorable to the improvement of 
particular systems of the body. 

(The same degree of excitement, whether of 
temperature or of food, may stimulate one sys- 
tem, and weaken another., Great heat accele- 
rates the circulation of the blood, and debilitates 
the digestive organs. As the manifestations of the 
mind depend on organization, it w conceivable 
why even talents and moral feelings depend on the 
influence of climate and nourishment. All obser- 
vations of this kind have been made merely with 
7 



62 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

respect to health and the intellect in general. 
But as medical men admit that some drugs act 
more on the nerves, others on the blood-vessels, 
others on the skin, others on the abdominal or 
urinary secretions, why should aliments, and 
other external influences, not be more or less 
favorable to individual parts of the body ? In 
this way, nutrition, and the regulation of exter- 
nal circumstances, will increase in importance as 
they are discovered to contribute, not only to the 
developement and organic constitution of the body 
in general, but also to the improvement of single 
parts. 

In this respect, our knowledge is by no means 
satisfactory ; yet every one will feel the import- 
ance of these considerations, and wish for possi- 
tive observations. This interesting subject, in- 
deed, deserves the attention, not only of medical 
men, but of all those who have the charge of ed- 
ucation. 

I shall now add some ideas concerning the reg- 
ulation of the vegetative functions, during the 
different periods from birth to the full growth, or 
to the time of marriage. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 63 



PERIOD I. 



FROM BIRTH TO THE AGE OF TWO YEARS, OR INFANCY. 

In this age, the mortality of children is the 
greatest ; and hence the care bestowed on their 
treatment must be proportionate to the dangers to 
which they are exposed. Let us then see what is 
to be done, with a view to regulating external in- 
fluences upon them ; admitting however as I have 
already stated, that the most important requisite 
to health and prosperity is a good innate constitu- 
tion. Among the external circumstances after 
birth, the most essential are Temperature and 
Food ; then follow air, light, cleanliness, sleep, 
rest and bodily exercise. 



Temperature. 

| It is known that without a sufficient degree of 
caloric, no act of vegetation or animalization can 
take place ; and that before birth, the child is 
constantly exposed to the temperature of a luke- 
warm bath ; was it then reasonable to think, that 
immediately after birth a low temperature should 
be most suited to its health ? In new-born chil- 



64 EDUCATION OF MAN 

dren it frequently happens, that circulation in 
the external vessels of the skin is impeded by the 
influence of cold air, and that from this circum- 
stance a kind of jaundice arises. In more ad- 
vanced years, great changes of temperature are 
hurtful to health. In hot climates, tetanus is 
often the result of sudden refrigeration. We also 
see the natural instinct of birds leads them to cov- 
er their young with their wings. How, then, was 
it possible to fancy with J. J. Rousseau, that new- 
born babes may receive benefit when exposed to 
cold, or when bathed in ice-cold water, or in 
snow ? Such a treatment, it is true, has been de- 
fended by an appeal to the example of northern 
nations. But it has been overlooked, that in those 
cold countries the whole animal economy of the 
parents is different, and that the children parti- 
cipate in their bodily constitutions^ The mo- 
thers in northern regions digest tilings which the 
delicate women of the south could not take with- 
out injury. It would, however, be as reasonable 
to feed a southern mother on fish-oil, as to bathe 
her tender offspring in ice-cold water.^ The bad 
effect of cold-bathing upon new-born children is 
now ascertained, and this nonsense has been given 
up. It is not, however, my opinion that young 
children ought to be brought up as in a hot-house. 
I grant that they are often kept too warm and too 
much wrapped up. Man being obliged to bear 
various temperatures, children should be accus- 
tomed to them by degrees. But the weaker and 



LAWS OP THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 65 

the more delicate children are, the more care is 
requisite. In general, however, cold is better 
borne by young than by adult persons. 



Food* 

It is scarcely imaginable how the simple pro- 
ceedings of Nature should be neglected, and fan- 
tastical dreams substituted in their place ; how 
any one, for instance, could doubt, whether, dur- 
ing the first days, the milk of the mother were 
wholesome to the suckling, whilst calves, puppies, 
and the young of all quadrupeds, suck immediate- 
ly after birth. Why will man alone disdain the 
laws of Nature, who takes so much care for the 
preservation of the species ? How was it possible 
to think, that honey, syrup of rhubarb, or even 
wine, was more wholesome to young babes than 
their mother's milk, which, at the beginning is 
thin, watery, and fit to evacuate the meconium 
collected in the child's intestines, and which, after 
a few days, becomes thicker and more nutritious ? 
Nothing but ignorance would endeavor to gov- 
ern Nature. Thus, the mother, after having taken 
rest from her labors, and some restoring nourish- 
ment, should, as soon as she has got milk, give 
suck to her child. In cases only where she has 
got no milk, light artificial nourishment ought to 
be given, till Nature supplies a better food. 



?• 



66 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Much has been said upon the question, whether 
the child is better nourished by its mother's milk 
or by that of another nurse, or by heterogeneous 
substances. I think nature must decide. Expe- 
rience shows, that, cmteris paribus, a plant succeeds 
better if it be not transplanted from one spot to 
another ; and, that young trees transplanted from 
a fertile soil into a barren one, languish or perish ; 
while, on the other hand, if left as they were, they 
grow luxuriantly. Young birds may be nourished 
with eggs, viz. with substances on which they 
lived in the embryo state. Young mammalia also 
may be well fed upon milk and eggs ; and why 
should it not be the same with young children ? 

If the mother be healthy, and her milk nourish- 
ing, it will agree the best with the digestive pow- 
ers of the child ; and by giving suck, the mother 
will be freed from various complaints, noticed 
by many medical writers as the result of neglect- 
ing the first duty of a mother. In many cases, 
however, it will be better for the mother, for the 
child, or for both, to feed the child on the milk of 
a nurse ; or, if this be impossible, by other ali- 
mentary substances. Many mothers of a delicate 
constitution are weakened and fall into consump- 
tion in consequence of giving suck. Many chil- 
dren also perish in such cases from want of suffi- 
cient nourishment. A mother is certainly blame- 
able, if, from a love of dissipation and perpetual 
amusement, she persuades herself that she is sent 



LAWS OP THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 67 

into the world merely to pass through it in the 
most easy manner. , But in the above-mentioned 
examples, it is most advisable to have recourse to 
the milk of a healthy nurse, who, as far as possi- 
ble, should resemble the mother in age, tempera- 
ment, and in the period of her delivery. If new- 
born children are given to nurses who have been 
delivered some time before, artificial means, such 
as syrup of rhubarb, or chiccory, generally be- 
come necessary, to evacuate the meconium ; or 
we may act on the babe by the medium of the 
nurse, in giving her alimentary substances that 
make her milk thin and clear, or even that are 
slightly purgative. 

The milk of a wet-nurse varies according to her 
age, her bodily constitution, to the food she takes, 
and according to her manner of living in general. 
She must avoid every thing which disturbs di- 
gestion, particularly strong spices, spirituous li- 
quors, and disagreeable affections of the mind. 
The suckling participates in her bodily disorders. 
It is liable through her to vomiting, to hiccough, 
to pain of the belly, diarrhoea, uneasiness, to con- 
vulsive motions, and various other complaints. 

Bad digestion, and all symptoms which result 
from it, are frequently caused by feeding the in- 
fant immediately after birth with artificial ali- 
ments, such as panada, pap, &c. It will be found 
that •new-born children succeed best, if they live 



€8 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

for the first three months only on the milk of the 
mother, or of a sound nurse. By degrees, they 
may be accustomed to some other food, according 
to their temperament and digestive powers, begin- 
ning with liquids, such as milk and sugar, broth, 
boiled biscuit, rice-cream, &c. and so go on to 
solids. The younger the child is, the less nour- 
ishment should be given at once, and the oftener 
repeated : older children may take more food, and 
at greater intervals. 

The nurse's milk certainly has great influence 
on the developement of the suckling. Those, 
however, who think that it imbibes the moral 
character of its nurse with her milk, are mistaken. 
If it were true, that a child brought up upon goat's 
milk was fond of jumping, that another fed with 
swine's milk was dirty, it would follow that adult 
people ought also to adopt the character of the 
animals on whose fle<=h they live. Men and 
women who live in the same manner, would be 
endowed with the same affective and intellectual 
faculties. Nor could it happen, that different 
children, nourished by the same mother, should 
show quite different characters, even before they 
had taken any heterogeneous food. Thus, the 
nurse's milk will contribute to the nourishment 
and developement of the instruments of the mind; 
but it will not give rise to determinate qualities. 
Her moral character may change her milk with 
respect to its healthy condition, but it cannot 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 69 

produce talents or feelings} Finally, the mental 
powers of children though innate are more or less 
exercised and directed hy the nurse's temper and 
mental capacity, and the nurse is the first moral 
and intellectual instructor. 



Mr. 



Atmospheric air is another indispensable con- 
dition of human life, and its physical properties 
and constituent parts, have an influence on all the 
vital functions. Its transparency is necessary to 
vision, or to the passage of light : its fluidity 
permits the free motion of tl«? body in it. In vir- 
tue nf this quality it admits also of being changed 
or renewed. Its elasticity in propagating its vi- 
brations assists the sen^e of hearing. Its weight 
compresses the fluid and solid parts of our or- 
ganization. Moreover, as the temperature of the 
atmosphere is commonly below that of our body, 
the air receives the superfluity of caloric. Gen- 
erally, however, we are obliged to guard against 
the disagreeable sensations of cold caused by the 
too great privation of caloric. 

The constituent parts of the atmosphere are ex- 
tremely important to the body. Its oxygen and 
caloric are essential to the sustenance of life. Its 
azote, hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, water, elec- 
tric fluid, and the various exhalations of plants 



70 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

and animals, have a great influence on the func- 
tions of organized bodies. Certain conditions of 
the atmosphere cause plants of different kinds to 
perish. Some winds and conditions of weather 
produce epidemic diseases among animals and 
mankind. In some persons, the digestive powers 
are disturbed at the approach of a storm. Per- 
sons whose limbs have been injured by wounds, 
can foretell the changes of the weather by the 
pains they feel. Nervous and delicate constitu- 
tions perceive the slightest difference in the state 
of the atmosphere. Many of them know by their 
bodily sensations whether the wind blows from 
the north, east, or west. 

New-born children, according io tk©Ir innate 
temperaments, are more or less benefited or dis- 
turbed by the condition of the atmosphere. Some 
constitutions require a dry and others a moist air, 
It is, however, a general rule, that it should be 
pure, and not impregnated with noxious exhala- 
tions. 



Light. 

The influence of light is also necessary to the 
developement and health of organized bodies in 
general. It changes the color of plants and ani- 
mals, and the complexion of man. Plants kept 
in darkness grow pale and yellow. Worms and, 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 71 

insects confined to dark places remain white. 
Those who spend their lives in their closets, have 
a pale and yellowish complexion. The whole 
organization, being deprived of light, grows weak 
and fat. It is affected with scurvy or putrid com- 
plaints, and the liver enlarges. Hence dark habi- 
tations, narrow streets, high houses, little win- 
dows, and whatever shuts out light from dwelling- 
places, is unwholesome. 







Light awakes us from sleep ; it excites all 
functions of the body, particularly those of the 
skin. Its sudden impression excites sternutation. 
Too much light produces headach, inflammation 
of the eyes, of the skin, of the throat, and of the 
brain ; hence, its regulation is of great import- 
ance. 

The eyes of new-born children should not be 
exposed to a strong light at once, and when they 
begin to see, they ought to be placed so that the 
light is before them, since they always direct 
their eyes towards it, and may acquire an irregu- 
lar look, the eyeballs being turned too much up- 
wards or sidewards. 



Cleanliness. 

The skin having a great influence on the pre- 
servation of health, by its absorption and excre- 



n 



r MAN. 



ores must be kept open by washing the 
body, and by changing the swaddling-clothes 
and linen whenever they are unclean. According 
to the condition of the skin, it may be washed 
with lukewarm water only, or with water and 
wine, to strengthen it. or rubbed over with some 
oily substance if it be dry and rough. 

Some parts, such as the folds of the neck, be- 
hind the ears, the interior of the legs, k which 
are liable to be inflamed, deserve particular atten- 
tion. They may be washed with a solution 
alum, or powdered with pubis /ycoporfn. or be- 
smeared with cacao-butter, oil. or any other pure 
greasy substance. I have already mentioned, that 
children should be accustomed by degrees to a 
lower temperature : hence the water or the bath 
employed as the means of cleanliness, must grad- 
ually be used colder and colder. The body, like 
the might be exposed by degrees to the at- 

mosphere. 



Sfeep. Hate*!**, Red, amd Bodily Extrci 

'ore birth, children seem to sleep almost con- 
tini. - the infant, the 

I requi \ s i tlien 

ivl never necl, and be 

It i-. however, 
wrc _ .Tows means t< 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTI ■'. 73 

sleep. On the other hand, they may be soon 
accustomed to awake and to fall asleep at a c 
tain hour, and this habit is useful in various re- 
spects. 

The free exercise of their limbs is very advan- 
tageous to them. No part of the body ought to 
be pressed. It was an absurd custom to tie the 
tender creatures, and to impede all their motions. 
It is particularly necessary to attend to the head, 
and not to let it fall backward, since the nerves of 
the spinal cord may suffer from pressure, on ac- 
count of the cartilaginous state of the vertebral 
pre 

We ought not to be uneasy when children cry 
a little. By crying, the lungs are distended and 
strengthened, tl and nostrils are cleaned, 

and the circulation of the blood is promoted. It 
is imprudent to lift up children by one part only, 
such as by one hand or one arm, luxations being 
easily the result of this practice. It is also wrong 
to place delicate and fat children too early on 
their legs, since curvations of the spine and hip 
bones may be thereby produced. Moreover, the 
thorax and shoulders are often injured by leading- 
strings, which, in consequence, ought to be abol- 
ished. It is true, that many children are strong 
enough to resist, but delicate ones must frequently 
suffer by them. Too violent shaking may injure 
the stomach and biain, and produce vomiting, 
8 



74 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

principally at the moment when the stomach is 
full. Bodily exercise is of great influence, but it 
is to be directed with caution. 



PERIOD II. 



FROM THE AGE OF TWO YEARS TO THAT OF SEVEN, OR 
CHILDHOOD. 

Before I consider the particularities of this pe- 
riod, it will be interesting to advert to a few cir- 
cumstances with respect to dentition. At first, the 
natural food of children is liquid ; but about the 
seventh month, instruments which are fit to assist 
the digestion of solid aliments, viz. the teeth, ap- 
pear. The developement of these organs is often 
the cause of various complaints. The saliva is 
generally secreted copiously, frequent sneezing oc- 
curs, the gums grow red and hot, sometimes they 
are swollen, one or both cheeks are red ; the child 
carries his hands, and every thing he holds, into 
his mouth, and presses the gums against it. At 
the end, white spots are seen where the teeth ap- 
pear. Commonly the two middle incisors of the 
lower jaw first cut through the substance of the 
gums. A little while after, the corresponding in- 
cisory teeth of the upper jaw show themselves, 
then the lateral incisors, the eye-teeth, and the 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 75 

lateral grinders. When the small molar teeth 
have come through at the age of about two years, 
the first dentition is complete, and the life of the 
child, which before was precarious, is then more 
secure ; for it is ascertained that a third part of 
children dies beforejthe age of twenty-four months. 

The growth of teeth, though a natural operation, 
causes various disorders in the vital functions of 
children. Diarrhoeas and convulsions are the 
most fatal accidents attending difficult dentition. 
The state of the jaws alone, or, by sympathy of 
several other parts, sometimes of the whole body, 
is inflammatory. Hence the treatment of such 
children must be conformable. As their constitu- 
tions, however, are extremely modified, a physi- 
cian ought to be intrusted with the particular care 
of them. The general rule is, that every kind of 
stimulus ought to be avoided. Tepid bathing 
is an excellent antiphlogistic. 

It may be observed in general, that in infancy 
the vital motions tend particularly toward the head, 
and that, therefore, this part is the principal seat 
of the afflictions peculiar to this age. 

In order to fav*>r the cutting through of the 
teeth, the gums may be rubbed with sugar or bits 
of althea-root, moistened with honey or syrup, 
and kept between the jaws. The nurse may also 
introduce her little finger, moistened with honey, 



76 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

between the gums of the child, to soften them, 
and to relieve the pains of the young creature. 
Sometimes little incisions are made into the gums 
with evident advantage. The excretions of the 
skin and bowels must be kept free. 

To the twenty teeth of the first dentition two 
new grinders in each jaw are added at about the 
end of the fourth year. They differ from those 
that preceded them in this, that they are destined 
to remain throughout life, whilst the primitive or 
milk-teeth are lost at seven years of age, in the 
same order in which they appeared, and are re- 
placed by new teeth, better formed, and provided 
with longer and more perfect roots. Towards 
the ninth year two new large grinders come forth 
beyond the others. There are then twenty- 
eight teeth. Between eighteen and thirty, or 
sometimes still later, the denies sapientix, two in 
each jaw, complete the second dentition. 

Dentition, like all other acts of the living econ- 
omy, is subject to endless variations. There are 
instances of children that have come into the world 
with one or two incisors, and there are often su- 
pernumerary teeth. It is difficult to say why the 
primitive teeth are detached and. replaced by others, 
which have remained so long buried within the 
alveolar processes. Teeth of a third set have been 
known to be cut in very old people. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 77 

( Generally speaking, teeth are not taken all the 
care of which their importance demands. They 
ought at least to be kept clean. Those who neg- 
lect this duty, offend against the first requisition 
of nature ; and if they are punished by tooth-ache, 
they receive only their desert. The condition of 
the teeth certainly depends on the whole constitu- 
tion of the body ; and in many cases, the advice of 
a good dentist, who understands not only the 
operative part of his art, but also the animal 
economy, is to be recommended. 

The teeth are in close relation with nourish- 
ment, and this deserves particular attention. The 
necessity of taking nutritive substances is general- 
ly known and indicated by hunger and thirst. 
The nourishment must be modified in quantity 
and quality according to age, to the bodily con- 
stitution, to climate, to season, and to the manner 
of living. The influence of different kinds of food 
on the whole constitution is evident, from the 
modified flesh of animals of the same species, fed 
on various aliments. It is useful to vary the food, 
and nature who has assigned to different animals 
their different aliments, has in this respect allowed 
to man the greatest variety. He is almost omni- 
vorous, and he alone understands the art of cook- 
ery, by which he facilitates digestion. 

In children, the functions of nutrition are quick- 
er ; they die sooner of inanition than adult per- 

8* 



78 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

sons ; they require more frequent feeding, and a 
larger quantity of food, as they not only change 
the matter of their body, but increase also. 

As children grow stronger, they will digest sub- 
stances of a heterogeneous and more solid nature. 
In general, the more simple and plain, the better 
are the aliments ; and every food which digests 
is wholesome. It is, however, known, that lym- 
phatic constitutions require nutritive and invig- 
orating substances ; that nervous temperaments 
suffer from stimuli, and stand in need of light and 
simple aliments ; and that weak bowels do not 
bear vegetables, fruit, and paste, these aliments 
giving rise to worms and scrofulous diseases. 
Such intestines then must be strengthened by an- 
imal food, steel-water, some wine and bitters. 

In cold climates animal food is necessary to 
man ; he grows pale and languishing on vegetables. 
In hot countries, on the contrary, fruit and vegeta- 
bles nourish sufficiently, their nature being quite 
different from that of plants in northern regions. 
This is evident, since the spices we take to assist 
digestion, belong to the vegetables which grow in 
southern climates. A cold dry air excites the ap- 
petite, while a hot and moist atmosphere weakens 
the digestive organs. 

The alvine and cutaneous excretions are in in- 
timate connection with nutrition. Noxious par- 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 79 

tides, when they remain in the intestines, are 
absorbed and brought into the circulation. The 
abdomen being constipated, the bloodvessels are 
compressed, the circulation is impeded, and piles 
are produced. The blood is carried to the brain, 
and causes head-ache. Thus, the excretions must 
be taken into consideration and regulated. They 
vary in quantity and quality according to age, 
temperament, nutrition, weather and season. Per- 
spiration is more considerable in youth than in 
old age, more in hot than in cold weather, more 
in irritable than in inert temperaments. Children 
suffer from being kept too warm. Yet too sudden 
and too great changes of temperature produce in 
them, as well as in adult persons, catarrhal affec- 
tions, coughing, inflammation, diarrhoeas, &c. 

The skin ought to be kept clean, exposed to 
light and the air, and thus rendered less sensible 
to external impressions. ( Health is preferable to 
a pale white skin and a sickly constitution. With 
respect to clothing, the general rule is, that no 
part of the body ought to be pressed! Weak or- 
gans may be supported, and the whole body de- 
fended against cold, but all the movements of the 
body ought to be free and easy. It is a false taste 
to hurt the health, or to injure the vital functions 
of females with a view to increase their beauty. 
A sedentary life is adverse to health in general, 
particularly to that of children. It is the cause of 
incalculable mischief. Children require more 
bodily exercise, and more sleep than adults. 



80 EDUCATION OF MAN 

\ During childhood, as well as in infancy, the 
regulation of the vegetative functions ought to be 
the most important point of education. A good 
and healthy organization is the basis of all employ- 
ment and of all enjoyment. Many parents, how- 
ever, are anxious to cultivate the mind at the 
expense of the body. v They think they cannot in- 
struct their offspring early enough to read and to 
write, whilst their bodily constitution and health 
are overlooked.' Children are shut up, forced to 
sit quiet, and to breathe a confined air. This er- 
ror is the greater, the more delicate the children, 
and the more premature their mental powers are. 
The bodily powers of such children are sooner ex- 
hausted, they suffer from dispepsia, headache, 
and a host of nervous complaints ; their brain is 
liable to inflammation and serious effusion ; and a 
premature death is frequently the consequence of 
such a violation of nature. > It is indeed to be la- 
mented, that the influence of the physical on the 
moral part of man is not sufficiently understood. 
There are parents who will pay masters ^ery 
dearly, in hope of giving excellency to their chil- 
dren, but who will hesitate to spend the tenth 
part to procure them bodily health. Some by an 
absurd infatuation, take their own constitutions as 
a measure of those of their children, and because 
they themselves in advanced life can support con- 
finement and intense application with little injury 
to health, they conclude that their young and deli- 
cate children can do the same. Such notions are 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 81 

altogether erroneous, — bodily deformities, curved 
spines and unfitness for various occupations, and 
the fulfilment of future duties, frequently result 
from such misunderstood management of children. 
The advantages of a sound body are incalculable 
for the individuals themselves, their friends, and 
their posterity. Body and mind ought to be cul- 
tivated in harmony, and neither of them at the 
expense of the other. Health should be the basis, 
and instruction the ornament of early education. 
The developement of the body will assist the man- 
ifestations of the mind, and a good mental educa- 
tion will contribute to bodily health. ' The organs 
of the mental operations, w r hen they are too soon 
and too much exercised, suffer and become unfit 
for their functions. This explains the reason why 
young geniuses often descend at a later age into the 
class of common men. Indeed, experience shows, 
that among children of almost equal dispositions, 
those who are brought up without particular care, 
and begin to read and to write, when their bodily 
constitution has acquired some solidity, soon over- 
take those who are dragged early to their spelling- 
books at the detriment of their bodily frame. No 
school education, strictly speaking, ought to be- 
gin before seven years of age. We shall, how- 
ever, see in the following chapter, on the laws of 
exercise, that many ideas and notions may be com- 
municated to children by other means than books, 
or by keeping them quiet on benches. When 
education shall become practical and applicable to 



82 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

the future destination of individuals, children will 
be less plagued with nothings, but they will be 
made answerable not only for their natural gifts of 
intellect, but also for the just employment of their 
moral powers and the preservation and cultivation 
of their bodily constitution, since vigor in it is in- 
dispensable to enjoyment and usefulness. They 
will be made acquainted with the natural laws of 
nutrition and all vital functions, and with their in- 
fluence on health. 

The import of the laws of the vegetative func- 
tions is so great, that those who direct mankind, 
ought to be permitted to regulate them in many 
respects. The Mosaic law may serve as a fine 
specimen. All ancient legislators paid great atten- 
tion to these laws, as well as to those of hereditary 
descent. This knowledge will be of greater \izc 
than to forbid eating meat on certain days. Teach- 
ers ought to know, that nothing is unclean or an 
abomination in itself, but becomes so by being ill 
used. Man must eat and drink to live, but he 
ought to avoid all unwholesome food, and what- 
ever disturbs his health. 

The submission of man to the laws of the veg- 
etative functions is necessary during his whole 
life, but particularly from birth to the age of com- 
plete developement, since the time of growth is 
preparatory for the rest of life. 



LAWS OF THE VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS. 83 

An additional observation concerning the vege- 
tative functions is, that they, like all others, admit 
of great modifications, nay, even of idiosyncrasies. 
Some persons on account of their innate vigor and 
strong constitution succeed under all circumstances : 
they resist all noxious influences they digest what- 
ever they eat, whilst others suffer from particular 
aliments, such as mutton, pigeon, veal, cauliflower, 
Sac. These latter and all other particularities can 
only be observed, but can never be explained. In 
regard to them, every one must be his own physi- 
cian. Demosthenes and Haller were kept in a 
state of regular excitement bv drinking nothing 
but water. Coffee was the favorite stimulus of 
Voltaire, and tea that of Dr. Johnson. Sir 
Isaac Newton lived upon vegetables when he was 
employed in composing his famos treatise on 
Optics. Hobbes sat in his study, enveloped in 
the smoke of tobacco, ^-c. In general, however, 
a strict attention to physical education cannot be 
insisted upon too much among civilized nations. 
During the periods of life, from birth to the state 
of full growth, a third kind of laws is to be kept 
in view, and these shall be considered in the fol- 
lowing pages. 



84 EDUCATION OF MAN. 



CHAPTER III. 



ON THE LAWS OF EXERCISE. 

These laws embrace what is called Education 
in a more limited sense, but in this respect many- 
errors are caused by the true meaning of the word 
Exercise not being sufficiently understood. I em- 
ploy this expression as synonymous with putting 
into action, and distinguish Exercise from Habit ; 
the latter being the result of the former. 



Habit. 

Habit has two significations : it sometimes indi- 
cates the result of diminished activity, and at 
other times a greater facility of acting. A power 
being too active, becomes fatigued, diminishes, 
and is finally exhausted. Moreover, all natural 
powers become accustomed to external impres- 
sions, and the former become the less affected the 
longer the latter are applied. The mimosa sensi- 
tiva, when shaken for a certain time, ceases to fold 
its leaves. In the same way, each sort of impres- 
sion on the organization loses its effect by frequent 



LAWS OP EXERCISE. 85 

repetition. Even noxious impressions, when re- 
peated, are less felt than they were at first. In this 
sense Mithridates accustomed his stomach and 
bowels to poisonous substances. The attendants 
and nurses of patients become in a certain degree 
insensible to contagious diseases in hospitals. The 
mind itself shows less energy at each repetition of 
the same functions. It becomes accustomed even 
to misfortune and painful situations. Time is a 
great remedy of many evils. 

Organized beings adapt themselves in a surpris- 
ing degree to external impressions, and a change 
of place and various circumstances is frequently 
less advantageous than might have been expected. 
Prisoners, who have been confined for many years 
to dungeons, or unwholesome habitations, fall sick 
when they obtain their liberty. Many morbid, 
but accumstomed affections, such as old sores and 
exudations, &c. are to be removed with the great- 
est precaution, and sometimes to be left untouched. 
Body and mind successively take a turn which can 
be changed solely by degrees. 

All changes which nature produces are succes- 
sive, and art ought to imitate her proceedings. It is 
the same in dietetic rules, and in every manner 
of feeling and thinking. Drunkards cannot leave 
off their bad habits suddenly without injuring their 
health. Those who are near starving from inani- 
tion, will perish if too much nourishment be 



86 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

given ; and too much light dazzles those who 
have lived long in darkness. The bad effects of 
great and sudden changes of temperature on in- 
animate bodies, such as glass, or on plants, an- 
imals, and man, are generally known. Those 
who are accustomed to certain mental occupa- 
tions, feel great reluctance to give them up. In 
the same way, great and sudden changes of politi- 
cal, moral, and religious opinions, are not borne 
with indifference. Habit is a second nature, 
physically and morally speaking. 

The living generation, if not prepared for it, 
generally rejects every reform. It is only in 
process of time that the adherents to any new doc- 
trine become numerous ; and any doctrine, though 
false, when once admitted, will be replaced by 
another and a better only by degrees. Yet it is 
natural that the more agreeable a doctrine is, the 
sooner it will gain ground, and that a precept 
which commands resignation will be submitted to, 
in proportion to the reward it promises. Chris- 
tianity assigns eternal happiness as the reward for 
temporal conflicts ; and it was adopted by fisher- 
men and the poor sooner than by the rich. 

The law of modifying mankind, or of produc- 
ing changes is seldom understood by reformers. 
They are commonly too hasty ; though, at all 
times, experience has shown the danger and harm 
of such a proceeding. When changes are to be 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 87 

made, let them be gradual ; the greater the alter- 
ations you wish for are, the slower must be your 
method of proceeding ; keeping, however, con- 
stantly the aim in view. The precipitancy of 
common reformers can be excused only by their 
ignorance of human nature, and by their errone- 
ous opinion, that it is sufficient to point out 
errors, and to propose principles, in order to per- 
fect man without considering that he must by de- 
grees be prepared for, and accustomed to them. 

The facility of accommodating man to new im- 
pressions greatly depends on age ; it succeeds best 
during the period of growth, whilst in latter years 
we are less susceptible of changes. It is therefore 
not astonishing, that all new doctrines have been 
received and propagated by youth and new gen- 
erations. 

The law of accommodation, however great, 
never annihilates the general laws of life. It is 
even subordinate to them, and cannot prevent the 
successive changes of age. Again, every individ- 
ual being born with a different constitution, and 
with different dispositions, is not equally capable 
of accommodating himself to circumstances, and 
hence each will present some modification, though 
the external influences are the same. This is the 
case in the automatic and animal functions. Not- 
withstanding these restrictions, the law of accom- 
modation is incalculably great in the education 
both of individuals and of nations. 



88 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The second meaning of Habit is an increased 
facility of acting in a certain manner. In this ac- 
ceptation of the word, it is still more interesting 
to education than in the former, and deserves a 
detailed elucidation. 



Exercise. 

I have already mentioned that I employ the 
word exercise as synonymous with putting into 
action. Now the first law of this kind is, that ex- 
ercise strengthens powers. This principle is quite 
general throughout nature, and extends even to in- 
animate bodies. Musical instruments being play- 
ed on by masters in the art, improve. The pow- 
er of a magnet to support weight may be increas- 
ed, by gradually appending to it more. Every 
power, both in automatic and animal life, may be 
exercised, and thereby gains in activity. There 
is something analogous even in the diseased state. 
Each organic part, having once been affected by any 
disorder, is liable to relapses ; in the same way as, 
according to the first meaning of habit, by repeti- 
tion and continuation many diseases are exhausted. 

The digestive organs may not only be accus- 
tomed to various aliments, but they become also 
more active by being satisfied. In persons who 
spit out the saliva, the glands secrete more abund- 
antly. All muscles which are exercised increase 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 89 

in strength.' Smiths, and those who use their 
arms, acquire more power than those who sel- 
dom employ them. Bodily exercise in general 
strengthens ; and a sedentary life weakens the con- 
stitution. 

The influence of exercise on the functions of 
the five senses, is generally known and admitted. 
The sense of feeling often acquires a very high 
degree of perfection in persons who are blind. 
In the first vol. of Phrenology, speaking of the 
Generalities of the external senses, I have quoted 
many examples which prove, that they become 
more active by practice. 

It is the same with the internal faculties mani- 
fested by means of the different parts of the brain. 
Each mental power, if it be sufficiently cultivated, 
grows more energetic, whilst, if neglected, it 
shows less activity. 

In this chapter on the Laws of Exercise, I take 
for granted, that all dispositions are innate and dis- 
covered. I refer for the details of this impor- 
tant proposition to the first vol. of Phrenology. Hi- 
therto philosophers have admitted a few general 
powers, and have derived from them all particu- 
lar manifestations. The greater number of them 
consider the intellect as the cause of the feelings. 
Accordingly, they confine education to the Un- 
derstanding, and do not think of cultivating the 
9* 



90 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Feelings themselves. This, however, is a great 
error, and the first thing to be done is to specify 
the primitive powers of the Mind ; and then, as 
they exist independently of each other, every one 
must be exercised for itself. The legs or arms 
will not be strengthened by reading treatises on 
muscular motion. ■ The digestive organs will not 
act with more energy in those who know all the 
theories which have prevailed on digestion, and 
who are even able to explain the causes of hun- 
ger and thirst. Let such persons have but little 
to eat and to drink, and give to others who have 
never heardlof any theory of alimentation, whole- 
some food in abundant quantity, and every intel- 
ligent reader will perceive whose appetite and 
digestive functions will be exercised to the best 
advantage. 

Let any one study the principles of optics mere- 
ly in books and in descriptions ; let him learn by 
heart all the theories of colors, but let him never 
see any color, nor feel their harmony. He may, 
like a blind man, recollect all the expressions used 
in painting, but without practical instruction his 
faculty of coloring will not improve. 

Who will pretend to cultivate the musical talent 
only by reading discourses about the principles of 
melody and harmony ? Is it not necessary for 
this purpose to perform tunes, or to hear them 
performed by others, either in singing or in play- 
ing on a musical instrument ? 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 91 

It is the same with all intellectual faculties. 
Each must be exercised or put into action for it- 
self. Thus, to cultivate the power of Numeration, 
the numbers must be shown in real objects. To 
exercise the power of Locality, it is not enough .to 
know the names of each town, river, sea, &c. but 
their respective situations must be acquired. 
Some children easily recollect names and geogra- 
phical descriptions by heart, but feel great diffi- 
culty in learning local situations ; while others 
present to themselves, in their own minds, an ex- 
act image of localities the names of which they 
have forgotten. When children are obliged to 
trace maps, it is not always those who know the 
localities best that have the greatest power of trac- 
ing them on paper. The fundamental faculties 
must be separated in every study. In geography, 
for instance, a perfect knowledge requires the ex- 
ercise of Individuality, of Form, Size, Locality, 
and Language. In order to draw maps, Con- 
st ructiveness is required in addition. The latter 
power will be assisted by Order and Numeration. 

The intellectual faculties of man have improved 
less by education than they might have done, in 
consequence of two reasons, first, of the primitive 
powers of the understanding not being known ; 
and second, of the difference between sensations 
and perceptions on the one hand, and the artificial 
signs, either sounds or figures, which express them, 
on the other, not being attended to. 



92 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

To proceed as if artificial signs could produce 
sensations and perceptions, while they can only 
call those ideas into recollection which have pre- 
existed in the mind, does incalculable harm. The 
old system of education however, is conducted in 
this faulty manner. Children learn and repeat 
words without meaning, like parrots.- But it 
ought to be admitted as a general principle, in 
communicating every kind of positive knowledge 
of the external world, that, first, sensations and 
perceptions must be excited, and these then de- 
noted by particular signs. In that way only we 
shall avoid the great mistake to which we are ac- 
customed from infancy, viz. of pronouncing words 
without knowing their signification. 

The vocal or written signs are to be used only 
as means of communication, of recollection and 
tradition ; but they cannot be considered as the 
cause of any idea or sensation. On the other 
hand, each intellectual faculty must be exercised 
by practical application, in the same way as the 
sense of hearing is exercised by hearing, that of 
smelling by smelling, that of sight by seeing. 

With respect to the Feelings, education is still 
more defective. It is commonly believed that it 
is more difficult to cultivate the propensities and 
sentiments than the intellectual powers. It is 
even said that the feelings cannot be taught. This 
proposition, however, is not clearly stated. The 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 93 

feelings cannot be taught, if by this proposition we 
mean, that they may be given by education ; in 
this sense also understanding cannot be communi- 
cated. Both intellect and feelings are innate or giv- 
en by the Creator, but the latter may be exercised 
in the same manner as the intellect, not by the 
action of the faculty of language, or by learning 
signs, or by exercising the verbal memory, but by 
putting the feelings themselves into action. I 
even think that it is much easier to exercise the 
feelings than the intellectual powers. 

Vlt cannot be too frequently repeated, that the 
Feelings do not result from intellect, any more 
than intellect is the result of the feelings. No one 
is benevolent, just, timid, courageous, haughty, or 
affectionate, in proportion to his understanding, 
nor has he penetration on account of his feelings. 
Moreover, each affective, as well as each intel- 
lectual faculty, must, and may be exercised for 
itself. - Man learns to be courageous, circumspect, 
ambitious, just, or benevolent, as he learns to 
sing, to calculate, to measure, to speak, and to re- 
flect. When often exposed to danger, he learns to 
meet death without fear> By habit he becomes 
indifferent to destruction. The heart, as the Chi- 
nese proverb states, goes farther than understand- 
ing, 

Thus, bring men into favorable situations, cal- 
culated to call forth their feelings, and these will 



94 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

be strengthened. In order to cultivate benevo- 
lence, one should not frequent only the society of 
rich and opulent persons, and learn by heart de- 
scriptions of charity ; he must experience misery 
himself and contemplate the painful situations of 
others. K There are more poor willing to give 
charity from their necessity, than rich from their 
superfluity. If all our whims and fancies have 
generally been satisfied, the feelings of conscien- 
tiousness and benevolence towards others are less 
excited, than if our wishes have been contradicted 
and reformed.} For the same reason moral feel- 
ings will not improve by frequenting places of 
debauchery, N 

The principle in question explains the ancient 
proverb ; verba movent, exempla trahunt, and also 
the great influence of bad or good company. So- 
ciety, however, cannot be, as it is often consider- 
ed, the cause of any faculty; it presents only an 
opportunity to the innate powers, to act, or excites 
them to do so. 

The knowledge of the means of exciting the 
powers is very important, but not better under- 
stood than the fundamental powers themselves. 
It is time to abandon the immense error, that 
words and precepts are sufficient to call internal 
feelings and intellectual faculties into active exer- 
cise. Gospel-preaching is infinite, but many of 
those who deliver exquisite sermons are too often 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 95 

obliged to add : Do what I sav, and not what I 
do.) Now, if they themselves show no faith by 
their works, how can they expect others to do 
so ?<? Let education be practical, and the means of 
excitement adequate to the innate dispositions. 
Bold children will reap advantage from being 
brought up alone, but timid ones must be early 
accustomed to the society of strangers..; Obstinacy 
will increase by unseasonable vexations, while just 
and quiet resistance or mild treatment may sup- 
press iO The feelings are rather moved by a 
dramatic representation than by a monotonous 
sermon. | The sight of a person wounded, or in 
danger, makes a greater impression on the mind, 
than reading that thousands have been killed in a 
battle. ' Natural language, in general, has more 
effect on the feelings than artificial signs.' We are, 
for instance, more likely to sn.ile or laugh on look- 
ing at a gay face, than on hearing the word gaiety 
mentioned 

The effect of external impressions on internal 
faculties is proportionate to the assistance which 
the external senses give to the internal faculties. 
I refer particularly to what I said of the mediate 
functions of the external senses, in vol. I. of 
Phrenology. In that way, the influence of religious 
ceremonies on common people, is easily explained, 
and ought not to be overlooked. Music, and 
representations of objects and facts in paintings 
and sculpture, may excite various kinds of feel- 



96 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ings, the inferior as well as the superior. — It is 
true, that these means may be and have been 
abused ; but I think it wrong on that account to 
reject them altogether. Let the impressions on 
the senses be adapted to the feelings we wish to 
excite, and these will be exercised. Church- 
music certainly should be different from that of 
the ball-room, but music itself ought not, there- 
fore, to be considered as useless in the inspiring 
religious feelings. By means of music, the sol- 
dier may be incited to fight, and the Christian to 
adore his Creator. The great point is, not to 
confound the means with the aim, and not to con- 
sider the first as the second. Religious cere- 
monies are nothing but means to become morally 
good ; and if they do not tend to that purpose, 
they lead us into error. The practice of them 
will not improve the moral conduct any more 
than learning the commandments by heart will do. 
It is also true that the effect of music is different 
in different individuals ; but it is a great instance 
of ignorant bigotry and intolerance in persons to 
exclaim against its use in religion, because they 
themselves are unfortunately insensible to its 
charms. 

I shall add a few remarks on the artificial signs : 
they are oral, viz. pronounced, or written and 
printed. We commence witli learning the oral 
or vocal signs. Their number increases in pro- 
portion to the activity of the innate faculties of 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 97 

the body and mind, [but children ought not to be 
taught to pronounce any word, without learning 
at the same time to understand it. 

As every family has not the means of giving 
sufficient education to their children at home, they 
send them to schools or colleges, to be instructed. 
Public institutions, in consequence, ought to be 
established, with a view to give notions first, and 
signs afterwards, in proportion to the notions ac- 
quired. v It is evident, that the objects to be taught 
must vary, according to the situations of the 
scholars, in future life, whether they be destined 
for agriculture, commerce, or any of the learned 
professions. Articles which compose the first 
necessaries of life, the most common objects and 
events, Forms, Measures, Weights, Colors, Coins 
used in the country, the general division of beings 
into minerals, vegetables, and animals, the great 
and common phenomena of nature, &c may be 
taught- every where. Those notions which are 
particularly interesting to country people, such as 
the rearing of cattle, or cultivating fruit-trees and 
other plants, &c. may be given where necessary. 
(Every kind of information given should be prac- 
tical and useful.. Whatever is spoken of, should 
be shown in nature, since it is useless to speak of 
things which children have neither seen, heard, 
felt, tasted, nor smelt. They cannot know any 
more of them than those who are born blind do 

of colors. The feelings also ought to be exercised 
10 



98 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

as far as they are necessary ; but it is not enough 
to speak of Charity to teach it ; teachers must ex- 
cite that feeling by their own examplei ; and chil- 
dren must be accustomed to practise that virtue. 

In the practical way, an immense number of 
useful notions might be given to children in a 
short space of time. Their intellect shows a 
great tendency to acquire positive knowledge, 
while teachers, in direct opposition to nature, 
very absurdly torment them with words without 
meaning, or with things they cannot understand. 
Spelling and reading seem the only points which 
teachers mind, hence the great number of 
school-books of that description. Teachers how- 
ever, should be most anxious about children learn- 
ing to think and to understand what they say and 
read, instead of repeating, like parrots, phrases 
and sentences. The school-books ought to be 
composed in reference to ideas to be communi- 
cated to the young mind, whatever is unintelli- 
gible or cannot be explained, is not only useless 
but accustoms the reader to use signs, without 
meanings, and to read without thinking. 

As in teaching languages or vocal signs, it is 
essential to combine notions with words, and to 
show that the latter are merely signs, so, in 
teaching words, the whole grammar of the mo- 
ther-language might be taught. Children will un- 
derstand the meaning of substances, or that each 
being has a name was ell as each substance, each 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 99 

form, dimension, color, &c. They may learn, at 
the same time, the qualities of objects, and words 
which express them, or the adjectives. Their at- 
tention may also be directed to the different de- 
grees of the adjectives. In proportion as they 
become acquainted with phenomena, or facts, the 
verbs may be explained. The different kinds of 
notions, too, may be pointed out, and children may 
thus become acquainted with the primitive powers 
of man, without any peculiar study. 

Those who are advanced in the acquirement of 
notions, and of words or spoken signs, may begin 
to learn written and printed ones. They will 
then compare the latter signs with the former, or 
with the sounds of which they have already ac- 
quired some knowledge. Among the printed and 
written signs, first, are to be learned those which 
are employed to express constantly the same 
sounds ; in the German language, for instance, a, 
0, m, 6, d, £■, Z. m, w, jo, s, w, fyc. ; then the signs 
which are different, but express the same sounds ; 
as, in the German, x and cks ; — -j and v ; — t and 
y ; — z and tz : — finally, the signs which designate 
different sounds, such as in the German c, c, A, fyc. 
When the printed and written signs of single sounds 
are known, then those of compound ones may 
next be taught. 

To assist the power of language, the facultie 
of Individuality and Form are usually employed 



100 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

at the same time. The figures of animals are 
marked under the letters of the alphabet ; an Ape, 
for instance is placed under A ; a Bat under B ; 
a Cat under C, <^c. ; yet no animal should be 
named that is not perfectly known to the children 
who learn the signs. It would be desirable, how- 
ever, to exhibit the animal itself, where it is not 
familiarly known. 

In this proceeding the fundamental powers of 
language and configuration are obliged to learn 
each two impressions : two forms and two names, 
for instance, A and Ape, C and Cat, &c. I there- 
fore would advise to teach only the written or 
printed signs, without bringing them in connec- 
tion with objects ; but I would, at the same time, 
when they learn the printed signs, exercise their 
fingers in copying the letters of the signs, or what 
is the same thing, in writing them in sand, as is 
the practice in the schools of mutual instruction. 
The advantage of the other method is supported 
on the effect of association. But those who are 
taught in this way, and have the power of confi- 
guration very active, may be impeded in reading, 
because they attach to each letter the object they 
have learnt in its connection ; and in order to read 
fluently, they must unlearn what they were obliged 
to learn at the beginning. 

It is clear that the printed and written signs or 
letters in any language, ought to be formed in the 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 101 

same manner. If both sorts of signs are different, 
as in the German language, a useless difficulty is 
created. 

The printed and written signs should be taught 
in the same order as the sounds are communicated, 
and a sign should never be taught without indi- 
cating the idea that is expressed by it. We ought 
to begin with learning the single letters ; then to 
go to monosyllables, and by degrees to polysylla- 
bles ; and these should be pronounced without 
spelling and compared with the printed and writ- 
ten signs. - Ale, Ape, Bed, Bank, Cat, Cold, fyc. 
— Apple, Bacon, Body, Bitter, &c. — Appetite, 
Candle-stick, Candle-holder, &c. 

As we are accustomed from infancy to connect 
sounds with the printed and written characters 
which represent them, we never see the latter 
without repeating at the same time the former. 
Did we never learn sounds, without acquiring at 
the same time a positive knowledge of the things 
they express, we should always think of the re- 
lated notions when we heard or saw the signs, and 
then learning would be much more agreeable, 
easy, and profitable. 

The same proceeding is necessary with respect 
to both the intellectual and affective faculties. As 
we ought to perceive the external objects indi- 
cated, before we learn the signs of them, either 
10* 



102 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

vocal, printed or written, so we ought to expe- 
rience the feelings first, before we learn the words 
by which they are expressed. Hunger and Thirst, 
Warmth, Cold, Anger, Fear, and all other emo- 
tions must be felt before their signs can be fully 
understood. The natural language alone is 
proper to communicate the meaning of expressions 
which denote the affective powers of the mind. 
The natural language deserves a particular atten- 
tion in the cultivation of the affective powers. It 
excites them much more than the artificial signs 
can. If a teacher should instruct girls about po- 
lite manners, whilst he himself is awkward and 
sets before them his legs stretched out over a 
chair, the theoretical lessons will be of less influ- 
ence than the example which strikes the eyes. If 
another speak to boys of peaceableness ^and for- 
bearance with an abrupt and commanding tone of 
voice and with sharp haughty features, he puts 
rather combatically and self-esteem than benevo- 
lence and reverence into action. It is a rule to 
speak the natural language of any feeling, you 
wish to inspire or to excite, and without doing so, 
the artificial signs are of little consequence. You 
may be silent and dumb, and yet distinctly speak 
to the feelings by natural signs. If education be 
conducted in this way, moral and religious princi- 
ples will produce more effect on mankind than 
they have done hitherto. Then the moral facul- 
ties will be called into action, and our efforts to 
cultivate the mind will not be limited to the pow- 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 103 

er of language only, viz. to that faculty which 
learns by heart artificial signs. 

Ignorance of the fundamental powers of the 
mind, and of the means of exercising them, may 
be observed in all the institutions of society, and 
in all branches of mental education. Classes for 
younger children and whole universities are con- 
ducted according to erroneous suppositions. The 
greater number of teachers agree that the reason- 
ing power ought to be exercised in every indi- 
vidual ; but what shall be done to accomplish that 
end ? Perhaps we see one man of great depth of 
mind who is eminent as a mathematician : the in- 
ference is immediately drawn, that every child 
ought to study mathematics, in order to acquire 
great reflecting powers ; and not even the theo- 
logian is to be excepted, as if mathematical and 
moral reasoning were founded on the same prin- 
ciples. 

Another person also endowed with great rea- 
soning powers is perhaps a great philologist, and 
particularly an excellent Greek and Latin scholar : 
therefore, every one is compelled to learn Latin 
and Greek, with the view of giving him a power- 
ful mind, as if learning words and phrases were 
the same as acquiring sensations and perceptions 
of all kinds, and reasoning on them. Happily 
the time of sophistry is past, and positive know- 
ledge is now esteemed. Experience shows, that 



104 EDUCATION OF MAN 

philology and mathematics do not improve arts 
and sciences, nor the moral character of man. 

It is replied, that the great mathematician and 
the great linguist, excel by their philosophical 
minds. This is certain ; but they did not become 
good reasoners, one by studying mathematics, and 
the other by learning Latin and Greek. There 
are great philosophers who cannot become great 
mathematicians, nor great linguists. It is true 
that the mind must be drilled and accustomed to 
reflect ; but I deny that this can be done only in 
Latin or Greek, or in the study of mathematics. 
The reflective powers of man are fundamental, 
and may be employed in prosecuting any branch 
of knowledge, in the study of natural history, 
zoology, geology, chemistry, phrenology, &c. ; 
and whoever excels in any line by reasoning, must 
possess them in a higher degree ; but they are by 
no means the exclusive attribute of mathemati- 
cians or philologists. They may be applied to 
any kind of notions and always with most advan- 
tage to the perceptive powers of which are most 
active. Now if an individual have calculation or 
language small, he cannot acquire a great stock of 
notions of that mind, and his reasoning powers 
will rather be impeded by the study of mathe- 
matics or the classics. It certainly would be as- 
tonishing, if some talented individuals could not 
excel in various kinds of knowledge and be at the 
same time good classical scholars. The plurality 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 105 

of the mental powers and their combinations 
ought to be better understood, and mental disci- 
pline which I allow to be necessary, may be ar- 
rived at by cultivating various kinds of knowledge 
and in combining them with reflection. 

In the same way, as each faculty exists in itself, 
and may be combined with others, so each may 
be exercised alone or in connection with others. 
We may exercise the faculty of Form, Size, or 
any other, without learning signs to denote our 
ideas ; and we may learn signs by heart, without 
understanding their significations ; or Language 
may also be exercised at the same time with other 
faculties. Yet it is useful to put into simulta- 
neous, or closely successive action, all the facul- 
ties which have a mutual influence on each other. 
In this way they excite each other mutually. 
This rule explains the whole doctrine of Mnemo- 
nics ; that is, the activity of one power excites 
that of one or several others. In the next chapter, 
this proposition will be more fully detailed. 
Here, my principal object is to fix the attention of 
teachers upon the great fault of confounding to- 
gether signs and ideas, or of thinking that mere 
words can produce notions. 

School education after the monkish and old 
fashioned system, begins with teaching printed 
and written signs, without explaining their signi- 
fications, and even the instruction we commonly 



106 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

receive in colleges, is more a communication of 
signs than ideas. Youth are admired and reward- 
ed in proportion as they know signs. How glo- 
rious is it for a boy to know how to communicate 
the same idea in Greek, Latin, perhaps in Hebrew, 
or in many modern languages ! 

Some speak of the delight they experience from 
reading the classics. This may be with those 
who have great facility of learning languages. 
But it is certain that, generally speaking, the 
study of the dead languages is extremely tedious 
for the greater number of pupils. Lord Byron 
stated it in reference to himself. I am convinced, 
that thereby many children become unwilling to 
learn things to which they would have attended 
with pleasure, had they been taught them in their 
own language in a practical way. Many others 
are drilled by indefatigable pains to become clas- 
sical scholars, and nevertheless fail to distinguish 
themselves. Some good Latin and Greek scholars, 
when they come to practical business, are left be- 
hind by fellow students, who at school were 
undervalued. The quantity of Latin words 
crammed into the heads of the students, does not 
give them the primitive power of reflection, nor 
does it serve to cultivate attention to practical life. 
On the contrary, that constrained method of 
studying, renders their conceptions slow and in- 
dolent. 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 107 

It is also said that those who know Latin and 
Greek generally express themselves with more 
clearness than those who do not receive a liberal 
education. It is indeed natural that those who 
cultivate their mental powers, write with more 
clearness than the uncultivated individual. The 
mental cultivation, however, may take place in 
the mother tongue as well as in Latin or Greek. 
Yet the spirit of the ancient languages, further is 
declared to be superior to that of the modern. I 
allow this to be the case, but I do not find that 
the English style is improved by learning Greek. 
It is known, that literal translations are miserably 
bad, and yet young scholars aie taught to trans- 
Late, word for word, faithful to their dictionaries. 
Hence tho: e who do not make a peculiar study of 
their own language, will not improve in it by 
learning, in this manner, Greek and Latin. Is it 
not a pity to hear, what I have been told by the 
managers of one of the first institutions of Ireland, 
that it was easier to find ten teachers for Latin and 
Greek, than one for the English language, though 
they proposed double the salary to the latter ? 
Who can assure us that the Greek orators acquired 
their superiority by their acquaintance with 
fore ion languages ; or is it not obvious, on the 

r- o O ' 

Other hand, that they learned ideas and expressed 
them in their mother tongue ? 

It is farther said, that it is interesting to know 
Latin and Greek, in order to understand the ety- 



108 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

mology of modern languages. This is true, but, 
with this view, the English ought to study also 
the German, Dutch, French and Danish, since 
their language is composed of words borrowed 
from all these nations. 

I am persuaded that the advantage does not re- 
pay the trouble of prosecuting such studies, and 
that they occasion an enormous waste of time and 
labor. I had rather learn ten ideas in a given 
time, than ten different signs which express one 
and the same idea. We should never sacrifice 
positive knowledge and reflection to the acquisi- 
tion of a variety of signs. We should begin to 
acquire notions and that language which is the 
most necessary for us to converse in. When I was 
examined, in order to my becoming a licentiate of 
the college of physicians of London, it would 
have been more suitable to have inquired whether 
I spoke the English language sufficiently than 
whether I understood the Latin, the English be- 
ing indispensable to the practice of medicine in 
and about London, whilst no physician examines 
his patients in Latin, any more than a barrister 
defends his clients, or a preacher exhorts his con- 
gregation in that language. 

It is said, that a man who knows Latin, has re- 
ceived a liberal education ; yet it is a lamentable 
thing that we should pretend to judge of a per- 
son's useful attainments by his knowledge of an- 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 109 

cient languages. I wish that the medical profes- 
sion may be cultivated by men of superior talents, 
but I hope that a knowledge of Latin and Greek 
will not continue to be the touchstone of deciding: 
who is, or is not, fit for practising this difficult 
and important art. Few surgeons and physicians, 
who are good classical scholars, will, from that 
circumstance, equal John Hunter in useful know- 
ledge, and in improving the healing art ; and yet 
he was not prepared by the study of ancient lan- 
guages for the excellence he attained. He had not 
the advantage of having received a scientific edu- 
cation, and hence his writings want clearness of 
expressions, but he might have acquired the art 
of writing in a well conducted English high school. 
It may be also remarked with respect to Shaks- 
peare, that he did not become the great poet, he 
was, from being a great classical scholar. 

We seldom learn to speak Latin and Greek, or 
we soon lose the habit of doing so. Thus, we 
learn these languages in order to understand the 
contents of ancient books. This is well, but then 
we ought, for the same reason, to study all modern 
languages ; at least, to act fully up to this princi- 
ple, medical men ought to take that trouble, since, 
beyond doubt, all branches of natural history, 
anatomy, physiology, and pathology, are more 
advanced now than they were at the time of the 
Greeks and Ramans ; and, of course, more know- 
ledge is to be obtained on those subjects from pub- 
11 



I |() I I.IK A TIOIN OK MAN. 

licationi in the modern Imh^um^'h <>r Kuropc, than 
in the language <>i Greece and Rome. Formerly^ 
wlicn icicntiftc booki of all nation* were |»ui»l ish- 
<-<i in Latinj a knowledge of if wm neoe iary j but 
lince the worki of every nation appear hi the 

mother tongue, the hiuihi drgnr of importance; 

can i»<> Longer be attached i<» it. Not every <»■,< is 
obliged • <> learn Hebrew though !•<• is exhorted to 
read the Bible, that ii in iti translation. Further) 

if men Of iclence be! ruiilrnlrd with cxharts and 

tramlatiom of modern work*, why ihould ii not 
he tlio Mimic) with reiped i<> the ancient? More 
over, the greater number <»i profeiiional nun, 
who are much occupied in practical iife, nave 
icarce)y time to read what ii written in their own 
language j theii knowledge of Latin and Greek) 

llii-M-Curc, i: <|uilr unless to thcin .ind to the art. 

Once I heard it itated that the claiiici contri 

Imtr to t Ik refinement of <"ii feeling!, bill '• ihould 

be lingular, if we could n<»i feel withoul knowing 

Lilt ill lllld (Jrcek. Tin: n ioiii mi ik <»| :ii<1i ;iii 
;i < Minn i rvidrnl :iii<l «loc, not, rcijnirr ;i iikiit 

detailed refutation. " i alio remarked thai 
tramlatiom are inferior to original wordi in Latin 
and Greek, in the wune way as the I'Yenr.h Ian 

oiiiiur cmiliol CXpM -.:; Sli;i U | m .« r< ': , I lion^lil s and 
concept ions. This rannol In- -:ii<l of the German 

language, and I do nol lay thai Latin and Greek 

ihould not Im- studied -it all. I willingly allot? 
that every one who hai ih<- natural talent and 



LAWS OF IX1BC1SE. Ill 

leisure, may study the ancient language!, as Latin, 
Greek, Hebrew, and ancient at well as (lie modern, 
if so inclined) and grant him liis hobby; I only 
maintain that a knowledge of them ought not 
to be required as indispensable from every stu- 
dent ; and it seems lo me particularly unwise to 

begin our preparatory and college education with 

them, and to lose so inui'li time and labor which 
might be more usefully employed. 

It is replied, that childhood is the most fit pe- 
riod for Learning languages) — that children must 
he trained up to the tedious study of ancient 
tongues, because) at a later period) they would not 
submit to the tame trouble. This proposition is 
supported by no authority) except that of the pre- 
vailing opinion, that the study of Latin is a neces- 
sary accomplishment ; it falls to the ground as 
soon as we feel its uselessness. It is undoubtedly 

trtte } that youth is the fittest period for learning 

languages, but let us learn those first which are 
the most important to our future life. Now, the 
modern languages appear to me to be the most 
useful. Above all stands our mother tongue ; we 
OUght) therefore) to begin with it. The parts of 
Speech are the same in all languages, and may be 

Learnt in die modern as well as in the ancient. I 

am quite grieved to see that many young ladies 
aim at such arroniplislnnents, whilst they entire- 
ly neglect every Kind of knowledge indispensable 
to their future destination as wife and mother. 




- J-- - " 








fidfaad 



•"7 -_. 




gpHBB 



■ 



LIT s MM 









114 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The second principle of exercise is, that the 
primitive powers are not to be confounded with 
their application ; each power being always the 
same, but its applications and modifications infi- 
nite, according to age and external circumstances. 
Inattention to this difference, produces more bad 
effects than many persons suppose. They com- 
plain, for instance, of the vanity of adult persons, 
while they continue to nourish this feeling in 
every child they meet with. He who knows that 
the Love of Approbation is a fundamental feeling; 
that it exists in different degrees of strength in dif- 
ferent individuals, and that exercise increases its 
activity, will not excite it too much in infancy, 
for fear that, in later life, it should produce abuses. 
He will perceive, that flattery of every kind ex- 
cites this sentiment ; that praising a child for his 
figure, his hair, his voice, his clothes, his manner 
of dancing, &c. will "put into action, and increase 
his love of approbation, and prepare for him a 
source of misfortune. A looking glass and curls 
of hair, ear-rings and bracelets as well as titles 
nourish this feeling. Irascible children should 
not be permitted, and still less encouraged, to beat 
their playthings, against which they hurt them- 
selves. As equity was a principal object of the 
Areopagus of Athens, that virtue was considered 
as indispensable in the members in all situations. 
He who killed a bird that looked for shelter in 
his house could not become a member ; and a 
member who played on a word, was degraded* 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 115 

because such a practice might do harm to truth. 
How inferior, nay puerile, is the behaviour of 
some modern legislators ! Those who are faithful 
in little things, says Christ, will be so in great. 
Thus particular vigilance ought at all times to be 
observed not to cultivate to excess the propensi- 
ties and sentiments of children, which may in after 
life render them unhappy or impede their moral 
conduct. On the other hand, they are wrong 
who neglect to cultivate any feeling or the facul- 
ties of the fine arts, because disorders may and 
often do result from them. This also happens 
with acquisitiveness, and with every fundamental 
power, each of which, however, is given to a cer- 
tain purpose. In admitting that every one is an- 
swerable for the talents he has received, it is evi- 
dently our duty to cultivate the fine arts, as far 
as they are in harmony with all other faculties. 
Superstition undoubtedly degrades a reasonable 
being, but the human character is ennobled and 
the charms of society increased by respectfulness. 
There can be no doubt that in attending to the 
difference between primitive powers and their ap- 
plication, between their legitimate actions and 
misapplications or disorders, many errors hitherto 
committed in education will be avoided. Ladies 
want bodily exercise, but it is a mistake to make 
them march like soldiers. Since no female will 
gain the affection of a gentleman by a soldier-like 
manner of walking. Her movements should be 
graceful and gentle. 



116 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The third principle of exercise is, that the order 
of instruction ought to follow the order of nature, 
in bringing the faculties into activity. Children 
acquire notions before they make themselves ac- 
quainted with signs to indicate them. They know 
the objects themselves sooner than their qualities 
and mutual relations ; they know the qualities of 
those objects sooner than the modes of their ac- 
tions. Accordingly, their language begins with 
nouns, and verbs in the infinitive mode. By de- 
grees, they learn signs to indicate their acquired 
notions of other kinds. Their language, then, 
evidently shows, that their faculties do not appear 
simultaneously. It is, indeed, an important point 
in education, to know that the faculties of the 
mind begin to act successively, viz. in proportion 
as the organs on which their manifestation depend 
are developed. Hence, they ought to be exercised 
in the same order ; and the knowledge of the 
periods of developement of the respective organs, 
is as necessary as a knowledge of the functions of 
the primitive faculties ; because it is certain that 
no faculty can be exercised without the assistance 
of its organ. This principle is general in organ- 
ic and animal life. 

It may be here considered, that education, as 
far as exercise goes, begins earlier in life than is 
commonly believed. The vegetative functions, 
the hours of sleep, of appetite, of the urinary 
and alvine excretions, may be soon regulated. 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 117 

Children are easily accustomed not to fall asleep, 
except when carried on the arms or shaken in a 
cradle. They begin to make acquaintance with 
the external world when a few weeks old. It is 
by degrees that they taste and feel, hear and see ; 
that they learn to distinguish their nurse, or those 
who take care of them, from strangers, and the 
existence of external objects. When they become 
attentive to the things around them, we ought to 
show them repeatedly a great number of various 
objects, and exercise as much as possible their ex- 
ternal senses. They are soon tired with the same 
object, but pleased with new impressions, as is the 
case also with the greater number of adult per- 
sons. Thus, it is nut a matter of indifference, 
whether a child be carried quietly on the arm, or 
whether its attention be excited towards external 
objects. I consider it as very important in whose 
society young children are kept ; not that I think 
that children absolutely acquire the character and 
talents of those who are around them, but because 
their society will be favorable or unfavorable to 
the exercise of the innate dispositions. 

The periods when the innate powers appear, 
increase, decrease, or disappear, are of great im- 
portance. Some are active early in life, and con- 
tinue longer than others which appear later. 
Now, the powers will be cultivated with the most 
effect at the period of their natural activity. 



118 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

There is some regularity in the appearance and 
disappearance of the faculties, yet there are many 
exceptions and modifications, as in all natural 
operations. Nature is immutable only with re- 
spect to the relation of cause and effect ; but she 
modifies the phenomena in infinite varieties. It 
happens usually, that those powers that act strong- 
ly, appear early and last long. The intellectual 
faculties and several feelings, commonly decrease 
in old age. Several persons, however, are par- 
ticularly fortunate in preserving the energy of their 
mind to a great age ; but the greater number of 
old people are deceived, if they take themselves 
to be still what they were when young. 

Among the intellectual faculties, those of indi- 
viduality, form, eventuality, comparison, and lan- 
guage, appear first. Children soon know many 
individual objects and facts, and conceive general 
notions ; they call, for instance, every young being, 
child. Then the faculties of size, coloring, local- 
ity, number, order, time and tune, appear suc- 
cessively. Objects and their phenomena ought to 
be taught first, and afterwards the qualities of ob- 
jects and their relations. 

Among the feelings or affective faculties, those 
of attachment, cautiousness, love of approbation, 
acquisitiveness, conibativeness, secretiveness, de_ 
structiveness, firmness, benevolence, conscientious- 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 119 

ness, and imitation, are very early active. Those 
of reverence and amativeness appear much later. 

Let it not be forgotten, that from the earliest 
age, the feelings, as well as the intellectual facul- 
ties, may be educated, and that young children 
show no less difference in their characters than in 
their talents. They are patient or obstinate, indo- 
lent or lively, timid or courageous, attached to, 
or careless about others, &c. Let those powers 
which are naturally too active be quieted, and 
their activity prevented ; while those that do not 
act with energy enough, ought to be excited in a 
practical manner. As imitation is particularly 
active good examples and the best impressions of 
all kinds should be given. 

In treating of the vegetative laws I have stated, 
that very young children ought not to be obliged 
to sit still in an apartment all the day, as is some- 
times the case in common school education. Par- 
ticular places, in healthy situations, might be in- 
stituted, where children could come together to 
play, and at intervals to learn things in nature, 
and their names, objects and their qualities, in- 
stead of sending them out only to take a walk, or 
to breathe pure air. Parents might thus have the 
advantage of having their children kept out of 
harm's way, and the young creatures themselves 
would not be compelled to suffer the distresses 
necessarily experienced when restrained from mo- 



120 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ving their limbs, nor be tired by unprofitable 
learning. They would be pleased with acquiring 
the knowledge of things and of words to express 
them, and at the same time, they might be accus- 
tomed to order and obedience. They will also 
learn the signs which express the feelings, and 
their relations, in proportion as the feelings are 
excited in themselves. Gymnastic exercises might 
and ought to be combined with mental instruction. 
The principal object of such schools should be 
bodily strength, order, cleanliness, notions of 
things, and oral signs. 

The schools for young children in Mr. Owen's 
establishment at New Lanark, first exhibited, to a 
certain extent, the practical application of these 
principles in uniting physical and intellectual edu- 
cation. The infant schools since introduced in 
London and in the rest of Great Britain do the 
same ; and no one can observe the happiness and 
intelligence which reigns among the children 
there, without wishing this mode of instruction 
generally adopted ; though it may be still im- 
proved and more adapted to the nature of man. 
Unfortunately for the young beings this mode of 
instruction has already degenerated from its first 
plan. Many teachers find it too difficult to adapt 
themselves to the children. From habit, and per- 
haps from commodiousness, they prefer to keep 
them quiet and to teach them A. B. C. and 
spelling rather than to satisfy the active dispo- 
sitions of the young minds. Whoever takes interest 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 121 

in the improvement of education, should first 
think of means of forming teachers. 

The fourth principle of exercise is, that it must 
be proportionate to the innate dispositions. Too 
much activity weakens or even exhausts the fac- 
ulties, both feelings and intellect. This explains 
why too early geniuses often become ordinary 
men when grown up ; why the mental operations, 
when too active, are frequently deranged, and 
why it is necessary to keep up the balance between 
body and mind, and between the individual facul- 
ties. 

The brains of delicate children and premature 
geniuses ought to be exercised late, and the greater 
their mental activity is, the less it needs to be ex- 
ercised ; and the more care is to be taken of the 
body and the physical education. 

It is also very important to know, that during 
the climacteric years, when the body increases 
most rapidly, the mental powers are weaker. 
Hence, at that period, the body deserves greater 
attention than the mind. The mental faculties 
will resume their activity, when the body has ac- 
quired its solidity. 

Increased or diminished energy is dependent 
not only on the periods of growth, but all powers 
are liable to be occasionally more or less fatigued. 
12 



122 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

No power is always equally active, each require* 
rest. It is, therefore, advisable to exercise one 
power after another and to allow to children suf- 
ficient sleep. As any faculty, if too much excited, 
is injured, or even exhausted, so is it weakened if 
it remain too long inactive. Teachers may easily 
perceive the disadvantages of too long a cessation 
from study in the effects of vacation on their pu- 
pils. These latter always find some difficulty in 
returning to application and order. Intermission 
is necessary as well as exercise, but neither ought to 
be of too long a duration. They are relative, and 
education requires to be amended in this respect. 
A long vacation is more favorable to the teachers 
than to the students. The former, it is true, want 
rest, but they might alternate, for the same reason 
as the objects to be taught must be changed from 
time to time. Education should never be tedious, 
nor too long interrupted ; different faculties should 
be put successively into action, which produces a 
kind of relaxation, and sufficient care ought al- 
ways to be taken that the bodily constitution does 
not suffer by pressing too keenly the progress of 
mental instruction. Children, who return for 
months to their family, are rather spoiled, during 
that time, than improved in order and obedience. 
They are indulged in their caprices, and see con- 
duct practised in direct opposition to what they 
are taught at school to regard as meritorious. 
The frequent and long interruptions of practising 
the theoretical rules, prevent them from becoming 



LAWS OP EXERCISE. 123 

altogether accustomed to them, and they wish for 
nothing more earnestly than that the time of learn- 
ing might be over, to be permitted to act in oppo- 
sition to what they have been taught, and to for- 
get the ideas they have had so much difficulty in 
acquiring. 

The fifth principle of exercise is, that its influ- 
ence will not be the same on every individual, on 
account of the innate dispositions. Even different 
children of the same parents, and brought up by 
the same teachers, turn out quite differently. In- 
deed the fact, that the dispositions are innate, can- 
not be insisted on too much. We must say with 
Hume, (Essays on Morality, 3rd edit. p. 93.) that 
the influence of education would be miraculously 
great, could it but create one sense, and that this 
miracle is reserved to our Maker ; that education 
may cherish and improve the plants of nature's for- 
mation, but cannot introduce any original plant. 
Helvetius, who considered man as the result of 
education alone, was obliged to allow that " une 
folie passee rarement eclaire les hommes sur une 
folie presente." Marcus Aurelius calls little 
politicians, and compares with children, those 
who maintain that whole nations might be changed 
into philosophers. He was satisfied by being able 
to contribute in a slight degree to common welfare, 
and to improve a few persons. He denies the 
possibility of establishing Plato's republic. He 
in particular insists on the importance of making 



124 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

any new idea popular. He adds, that without 
this precaution the success is impossible, that ab- 
solute power and lessons remain without effect, 
if the manners of the people do not change ; that 
in this case, nations are but slaves, and complain 
of restraint, or are hypocrites, and feign to be per- 
suaded. 

It is more easy to cultivate the lower feelings, 
since they are naturally stronger in mankind ; in 
the same manner those who are virtuous by nature 
will sooner learn to practise moral principles than 
those in whom the lower propensities predominate. 
Those who have little conscientiousness will with 
great difficulty learn to be just in a higher degree, 
in the same way as those who possess any intel- 
lectual faculty in a small degree, will never excel 
in it. The greater the disposition, the greater the 
effect of exercise ; yet it is always true, that a 
proper degree of exercise strengthens the functions 
of each power. 

The preceding considerations on exercise afford 
an opportunity of speaking of the method of mu- 
tual instruction. It is inconceivable how its ad- 
vantages can be contested. I rather excuse those 
who contend for the beneficial effects of ignorance, 
and who object, that mutual instruction is a means 
of teaching in too short a time, than those who 
acknowledge the benefit of general information, 
and yet hesitate to employ this methods Its supe- 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 125 

riority is too evident to be long impeded by its 
novelty. 

It is my decided opinion, that this method 
ought to be used in all branches of knowledge, 
which maybe acquired by the influence of teachers, 
or which may be taught. Even those who are 
destined to improve arts and sciences will gain by 
it. The reason of this is very simple, and founded 
on the influence of exercise ; while at the same 
time this method has the great additional recom- 
mendation of being the least expensive mode of 
instruction. This advantage is certainly of im- 
portance, but I shall examine only the benefits 
which results from exercise. 

If there be many children or students together, 
the school hours are not sufficient to examine 
every one. Young persons, however, who are 
not examined, are less attentive to their studies 
than those who are ; their faults, not being re- 
marked, are not corrected, and only a few are no- 
ticed. In large classes all that can be expected at 
present is, that the teacher should explain every 
thing distinctly, and repeat it with a few scholars. 
He addresses himself commonly to those who learn 
quickly. Should it happen that the master speaks 
to others of less talents, the better heads, knowing 
their lesson, cease to pay attention, or at least are 
soon wearied of doing so. But were the better 
students obliged to repeat the lesson with the others, 
12* 



126 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

they would experience that we learn by teaching ; 
they would feel inclined to go over and over the 
same thing with those intrusted to them for in- 
struction, while, in the common way, they cease 
to repeat their lessons, when left alone. At the 
same time the students of less capacities will be 
more attentive, and, on account of the constant 
repetition, they will remember what was lost at 
the mere explanation of the master. 

Let us examine any branch of education what- 
ever, and we shall find that the advantages of this 
method are always the same. We may take a 
mathematical problem for the sake of example. 
Suppose the rules to have been taught, and that 
they are to be applied. Those scholars who pos- 
sess the mathematical talent in a high degree, will 
soon finish their problem, and will be obliged to 
wait in irksome idleness till many others, who 
cannot follow so quickly, have done. If the for- 
mer, only, are called for by the master to resolve 
the problem, the others hear it, but it is not at- 
tended with the same advantage to them, as if 
they were called to work for themselves. If, on 
the contrary, the scholars, with little mathemati- 
cal genius, be chiefly examined, those who excel 
in that talent will lose their time, and neglect what 
they know, while their attention would be excited 
if they were employed in teaching their condisci- 
ples. Their natural activity may even lead them 
to do mischief, whilst they are not otherwise oc- 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 127 

cupied. It is the same with spelling, writing, 
drawing, dancing, learning history, geography, 
languages, in short, with every branch of know- 
ledge that is taught. 

The practise of the common method can be 
excused only by the supposition, that all pupils 
are endowed with the same degree of abilities. As, 
however, daily experience shows the contrary, it 
ought no longer to be tolerated, if the object be to 
take the greatest possible advantage of the period 
of education. The new method is particularly 
useful in schools where all classes of children are 
collected together in the same room, and where, 
in the common method of teaching, w r hile one 
class is examined the others are doing nothing. 
Children are in general required to learn by them- 
selves, but few only are capable of this exertion. 
According to the new method, all classes go on at 
the same time, and the same subject is repeated 
till every child knows it. 

In colleges, where each class is separated, the 
necessity of the new method is less felt ; yet, the 
above-mentioned reasons induce me to think, that 
it should be employed in all large classes, where 
the pupils, on account of their different degrees 
of capacities, naturally form themselves into seve- 
ral subdivisions. 

The superiority of a new method, ought to de- 
termine the directors of instruction, to make a 



128 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

new classification in colleges, according to the 
subjects to be taught. There should be one pro- 
fessor for each branch of knowledge ; one for his- 
tory, one for geography, one for the mother 
tongue, one for Latin, one for Greek, one for 
poetry, one for mathematics, &c. The pupils 
who study the same branch might be brought to- 
gether, but divided into different classes ; those, 
for instance, who study history might be in the 
same room, but divided into several classes. A 
similar arrangement should prevail among the 
students of Latin, Greek, mathematics, geography, 
&c. The professor of each branch might put all 
his classes into action at the same time, in the 
same manner as is done in the schools for children. 
Monitors might take his place in the inferior 
classes. In this way, the pupils would make 
more progress than they commonly do. It is not 
necessary to state how many professors might be 
instituted, for there might be as many as branches 
are found to be requisite. The principal object I 
here contend for is, that the better students should 
instruct the inferior ones, when the masters are 
not sufficient for the purpose. Emulation would 
induce the monitors to employ their leisure mo- 
ments in learning new subjects. Moreover, the 
time which the masters give to explanation is 
short ; that employed by the scholars in learning 
occupies a greater portion. This portion of time 
will be filled up to more advantage by the method 
of mutual instruction, than if every one is left to 
himself alone ; and those who instruct others will, 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 129 

in this way, derive even the greatest advantage. 
This method, being new, has met with adversa- 
ries ; but whoever will set an example of using it 
in the higher branches of knowledge, will find its 
superiority the same as it is already ascertained 
to be in teaching the first elements of education. 
The fundamental principle implied in the method 
of mutual instruction, is one and the same for 
whatever is taught to many pupils at once. At 
colleges, those who are very zealous form private 
classes for repetition among themselves, and others 
who have means, pay repeaters. Every improv- 
ed system of learning admits the advantage of 
repetition and all teachers speak in favor of nu- 
merous instructors. This is accomplished by the 
monitorial system. It is objected that boys do not 
teach soundly. I reply that in that case they are not 
taught or do not learn soundly. It is applica- 
ble to monitors what we may say of instructors 
throughout : The most learned is not always the 
best teacher. The head master ought to under- 
stand human nature and to choose the proper 
monitors. Farther if the monitorial system has 
failed to produce the desired result, we may say, 
"what is best administered is best, "and not at once 
accuse or reject a new doctrine, or system be- 
cause it is not understood. I have seen the mon- 
itorial system applied with astonishing effect. I 
will mention only Wood's Sessional School at 
Edinburgh in Scotland, where the children of the 
lower classes are instructed, with little expense, in 



130 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

a manner which should do honor to those of 
the first ranks and it is done by the monitorial 
system. * 

The principal point of the Hamiltonian "system 
too is that of continued exercise. Numerous 
teachers replace the monitors ; and the same les- 
son is constantly repeated. The other great point 
of this system, which teaches to learn a language 
without the grammatical rule§, does not seem to 
me equally applicable to every individual. It will 
however, please the great number, and in general 
those who attach themselves little to principles ; 
whilst those whose reflective powers are large, 
will be desirous of knowing from the beginning 
the rules contained in their language. 

The advantage of repetition then being evident, 
and confirmed by daily observation, it ought to 
be more generally practised than it is done in pub- 
lic institutions. The more the pupils are examin- 
ed, the more they will learn, and the clearer their 
notions will be. 

It may be asked, .whether exercising the affec- 
tive and intellectual powers, makes the respective 
organs increase ? Each part of the body, being 
properly exercised, increases and acquires more 



* See review of Wood's account of the Edinburgh Sessional School 
in the American annals of education vol. 1. 



LAWS OF EXERCISE. 131 

strength. The fact is known to be so, with re- 
spect to the muscles of woodcutters, smiths, run- 
ners, &c. Now, the brain and its parts are sub- 
ject to all the laws of organization ; they are 
nourished like the arms and legs. Cerebral ac- 
tivity, therefore, determines the blood towards the 
head, in the same way as the blood is carried to 
any other part when irritated, and this law of the 
organization may enable us to account for the de- 
velopement of certain parts of the brain of whole 
nations, and to explain national characters, if in- 
dividual powers are cultivated during successive 
generations. I can speak with certainty from re- 
peated observations. The changes of cerebral 
developement when the individual powers are ex- 
ercised, or kept quiet, are astonishing. In the for- 
mer case individual organs increase, and in the lat- 
ter they not only stand still in growth, but some- 
times become absolutely smaller. 

The growth of the organs, however, is not the 
only or even most important advantage to be de- 
rived from proper exercise, for it is certain that 
organic parts, such as the muscles, the senses, the 
brain, &c. do not increase in size in proportion to 
their exercise. The muscles which move the fin- 
gers of a musician, for instance, who plays on a 
piano forte, will acquire more facility and agility 
than size by the exercise. If we walk little dur- 
ing winter, and take more bodily exercise in the 
spring, we are easily fatigued at the beginning, 



\02 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

but. by degrees we can make greater excursions 
without suffering by them. Yet the muscles do 
not grow in proportion as walking becomes easy. 
In the same way. the size of the organ of tune, or 
of any other power, will not augment in propor- 
- being exercised, but its fibres will act 
:h more facility. 

I finish this chapter by repeating the principal 

points detailed in it : Exercising is the same as 

putting into action : — each faculty mast be exer- 

?d fo: : — the means of exercising the 

importance ; — exercise of the 

faculties should take place in proportion as their 

re- '- organs are developed ; — exercise must 

4>e pr I the innate dispositions, too 

r too much does harm, but applied in a 

per degree, it makes the organs increase in size. 

modif. " internal constitution, and produces 

r activity and facility. The effect of the 

same exer .:. on account of the innate 

di- f different individuals. It has been 

particularly in reference to the 

moral fef but it will be greater, when the 

innate dispositions of the mind and the laws of ( 

are understood and attended to. The re- 
quired reform of education mi . in with form- 
n then Their influence; being of 
the fir- they mittf rank high in Society and 
their reward ought to be honorable. This might 
done by the a* e of the monitorial system, 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 133 

and without increasingthe general expense. There 
is so much zeal for education in the United States, 
particularly in New England, that this condition of 
improvement I hope will occupy the minds of 
American philanthropists. They will consult the 
American annals of education, and instruction and 
learn what has been done in Europe : and in some 
parts cf the United States, and what different teach- 
ers themselves propose in reference to Seminaries 
of this kind. 



CHAPTER IV. 



OH THE MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES, ASA HEARTS 
OF EXCITEMENT. 

The fourth condition which contributes to in- 
crease the activity of the faculties, is their Mutual 
Influence. To employ this means it is necessary 
to understand, that each power may be active by 
its internal energy, or by its being excited by one 
or several other faculties : and that on the other 
hand, each power may be inactive either by its 
want of energy, or by the influence of other facul- 
ties. This consideration deserves every attention 
in practical education. It supposes in the teacher 
13 



134 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

who wishes to reap from it all the advantages pos- 
sible, a knowledge of the primitive faculties of the 
mind, of the natural connection of their organs, 
and of the individual dispositions of him who is 
to be educated. 

It is a general law, that organic parts which 
contribute to the same function excite one another. 
The organs of smell and taste, the nerves of hun- 
ger and thirst, and the digestive power, are in in- 
timate connection. Smell and taste often whet 
appetite, and the appetite excites the sense of 
taste ; it is therefore justly said, that hunger is the 
best cook. The internal feelings are equally sub- 
ject to mutual influence. Amativeness, and philo- 
progenitiveness, frequently excite combativeness, 
viz. male animals fight more when under the in- 
fluence of amativeness than at other periods. Fe- 
males defend their young ones with more courage 
than any other object. Acquisitiveness and cau- 
tiousness, excite secretiveness to act. Attachment 
may put cautiousness into action, or we may fear 
for the sake of friends more than for others. 
Firmness may assist hope and justice, reverence 
and self-esteem ; and it may be assisted by the 
other feelings. In short, each feeling may be 
stimulated by one or several others. 

Mutual influence exists, also, with respect to the 
intellectual faculties, and is called Association of 
Ideas. Those persons, however, who consider a 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 135 

sociation as a primitive power, are mistaken, for 
the activity of at least two powers, whose functions 
are associated, is necessarily implied in its very 
existence. Now, this mutual influence takes - place 
among the feelings as well as among the faculties 
of the understanding, and among feelings and in- 
tellectual faculties promiscuously ; that is, one or 
several feelings may excite intellectual opera- 
tions, and vice versa. 

The mutual influence of the faculties is the ba- 
sis of what is called Mnemonics, or of the art of 
strengthening memory. This art is very ancient, 
but in consequence of its principles not being 
sufficiently understood, it has been rejected [by 
some, and extolled to excess by others. The great 
errors committed in mnemonics, resemble those 
committed in all branches of education, and in all 
sorts of institutions. Teachers of every sort look 
upon themselves as the standard for the whole of 
mankind, and commonly have recourse to that 
faculty which is the most active in them, repro- 
duces the most easily its anterior perceptions, and 
excites other powers with the greatest facility. 
They err in overlooking the differences of the 
innate dispositions and talents of different indi- 
viduals. 

The most common kind of mnemonics is found- 
ed on language ; that is, words recall individual 
notions. Written signs do the same, in bringing 



136 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

to our recollection sounds and ideas ; they depend 
on the faculty of configuration. If we resolve up- 
on doing a thing in a distant place, and after set- 
ting out to go there, forget our design, and recol- 
lect it only on returning to the place where the 
resolution was first made, the power of locality is 
the means of mnemonics, and many teachers of 
mnemonics have recourse to this faculty ; they 
combine ideas with places, and in thinking of the 
latter they remember the former. It seems that 
the ancient orators employed these means, in or- 
der to learn their discourses with greater facility. 
Their proceeding appears to be indicated by the 
expressions denoting the divisions of the subject, 
such as in the first, second, and third place, &c. 
This power may indeed, if it be strong, assist the 
other faculties. Persons endowed with it, may 
divide and subdivide, in their minds, a given 
place, and put into each compartment a particular 
notion, and the idea will be called to recollection, 
in thinking of the corner where it has been lodged. 
Locality, however, will be of little use to those 
who possess it only in a small degree ; whilst if 
they be endowed with the power of Form in a 
high degree, they will combine a notion with a 
figure with great facility. We may also, with 
other mnemonists, have recourse to several faculties 
at the same time, to fix the recollection of an ob- 
ject. 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 137 

This proceeding then may be applied with great 
advantage in education ; but it is to be remember- 
ed, that the most active powers furnish the best 
means of mnemonics, and that any particular mode 
of association useful to one may be useless to 
another, on account of the differences in the innate 
faculties. The general rule is to exercise, at the 
same time, as many faculties as possible in combi- 
nation with each other, and even with the senses. 
The activity of one or several faculties, may ex- 
cite the peculiar action of mind we wish for. The 
smell of a flower may recall the place where we 
perceived it first, or many particular circumstan- 
ces connected with it. The powers of Compari- 
son and of Causality, are often usefully exercised 
to this purpose, particularly in persons who can- 
not learn by heart what they do not understand. 
Others who have Imitation and Ideality large, re- 
collect easily things expressed with ideality. 
Every one remembers best those phenomena, or 
those points in history, which are in the most in- 
timate relation with his strongest feelings and in- 
tellectual faculties. These faculties enter into ac- 
tion with the greatest facility, reproduce their sen- 
sations, that is, appear as memory, and excite the 
other faculties. 

The strongest illustration of the effects of mu- 
tual influence among the faculties, is to be seen in 
the effect of emulation in children, and the desire 
of distinction among men. Many students learn 
13* 



138 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

more, in consequence of excitement produced by 
emulation, than by the innate activity of their un- 
derstandings. The love of approbation, indeed, 
may excite every other power. Soldiers do not 
always behave bravely, from the desire to fight 
alone ; but sometimes they do so from love of 
glory. Some men of talents ruin their health by 
continued study, as frequently from a desire of 
distinction as from a strong passion for the study 
itself. 

Acquisitiveness, or the desire of gain, is another 
great cause of excitement of other faculties. Its 
influence, and that of the Love of Approbation, 
are of such power, that many philosophers have 
considered these two motives as sufficient to ex- 
plain all particular manifestations of the mind. 
But however strong their energy may be, they 
never produce powers, they only excite the in- 
nate faculties to act. This fact ought to be 
specially attended to in education. It is under- 
stood by phrenology. If two boys possess the 
same natural endowment of the faculty of Language, 
but the one double the Love of Approbation of the 
other, he, by the influence of the latter faculty, 
may be rendered the more excellent scholar of the 
two. But if the Love of Approbation is equal in 
both, he who possesses Language naturally more 
powerful, will undoubtedly excel. 



MUTUAL INFLUENCE OF THE FACULTIES. 139 

The mutual influence of the faculties being also 
a means by which we may direct their employ- 
ment, I shall enter more into detail on this subject 
in the next Section, where I speak of the Motives 
of our Actions. 

From the considerations unfolded in the preced- 
ing Chapters, I draw the conclusions that Educa- 
tion ought to be founded on the knowledge of 
Man ; that the true principles of education ought 
not to be confounded with school-learning ; that 
great improvements remain to be made even with 
respect to instruction in arts and sciences, and that 
the education of the Feelings, which I consider 
as the most important, and place far above that 
of the Understanding, will require to be quite 
newly modelled. 

It is admitted and stated in the Preface, that 
several views developed in this work are not new, 
but there is a difference betwixt knowing a fact, 
and knowing the principle of it, and Phrenology 
alone can reduce to a science and system the iso- 
lated observations which had formerly been made. 
This assertion will be farther confirmed in the 
following pages. 



140 



SECTION II. 



ON THE DIRECTION OF THE FACULTIES. 

After having examined the conditions which 
contribute to the greater or less activity of the 
mental faculties, I shall consider the direction 
which ought to be given to their actions. In the 
same way as, in the first Section, I held it estab- 
lished by Phrenology, that all dispositions are in- 
nate, and that their manifestations depend on ce- 
rebral parts, called organs ; so I suppose here, 
that my ideas on the moral nature of Man, as de- 
tailed in the second or philosophical part of Phre- 
nology, are known. Phrenology shows that 
there is a natural arrangement among the faculties, 
and this circumstance is the foundation of the 
moral character of Man. To understand fully the 
ideas unfolded in this Section, it is also necessary 
to be acquainted with the sphere of activity of 
each special faculty of the Mind, and with the 
modifications of their manifestations. This infor- 
mation likewise is communicated in the volumes 
on Phrenology. 



IMPOKTAJNC'K OF M0KAL.1TY. 141 

In employing and directing the faculties of 
Mankind, we ought to proceed according to fixed 
and ascertained principles ; the first and most 
important of which is, That human actions are 
objects of moral regulation : The second is, That 
each faculty has a tendency to act : The third 
concerns the knowledge of the inducements or 
sources of our actions ; and the fourth the differ- 
ence of natural gifts. I shall, therefore, divide 
this Section into four Chapters. 



CHAPTER I. 

ON THE IMPORTANCE OE MORALITY* 

According to my ideas of the moral character 
of Man, his actions ought to be subordinate, or 
conformable to the whole of the faculties proper 
to mankind, and all actions which are in con- 
tradiction to the whole of these properly hu- 
man faculties are bad. The point which I 
wish now to impress on the minds of my readers 
is, that human nature is so constituted by the 
Creator, that morality is as necessary to the 
prosperity of Mankind, as oxygen to combustion, 
caloric to vegetation, and respiration to human life, 
and that not the animal but the human powers are 
end of human existence. 



142 KDUCAT10JN UF MAJN. 

The primary virtues, essential to the existence 
of society, are withdrawn from our election and 
choice, nor are they left to be directed only by so 
weak a principle as reason ; they are identified 
with human nature by the dictates of creation. 
Submission alone to the indispensable laws of 
morality is left to our choice. In doing so only 
can we contribute to the improvement of Man- 
kind. 

Christianity promises future rewards for every 
sort of righteousness, such being the will of the 
Creator. But, I maintain also, that morality is 
necessary in this life, not because I believe, as 
many do, that wicked persons are tormented by 
their consciences, a notion which I have endea- 
voured to explode in treating of the faculty and 
organ of Conscientiousness in the first vol. or in 
the physiological part of Phrenology ; but be- 
cause I really think, that the world is so constitu- 
ted, that morality is indispensable to the general 
happiness of Mankind. 

It is objected, that the just often perishes in his 
righteousness, while the wicked often thrives in 
his iniquity ; but shall we infer from this, that 
morality is less necessary to prosperity than I 
maintain ? 

The condition of individuals is subordinate to 
that of the community. On the other hand, one 
power may triumph over another for a certain 



IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 143 

time, and the animal over man in single individuals; 
but such a state cannot become general, nor ever- 
lasting, because the animal powers, from their ten- 
dency to the gratification of Selfishness, would, if 
predominant, overset society ; while the powers 
proper to Mankind, are eminently conservative, 
and calculated to promote general happiness. 

I grant also, that individuals and whole nations 
will perish, if they make use only of the faculties 
proper to Man. As long as Mankind remains as at 
present constituted, these faculties will stand in 
need of the assistance of the animal powers, to 
avoid being destroyed. Society must still be pre- 
pared for war in order to maintain peace. But 
history furnishes numerous examples, that wherev- 
er mere animal faculties have governed, the sover- 
eignty did not last ; morality and understanding 
being the two first principles of politics, and neces- 
sary to direct the actions of every faculty. 

I am sorry to observe, that generally the culti- 
vation of the understanding constitutes the princi- 
pal object of education ; and that in different 
countries, the pupils of public establishments smile 
with pity at praise given for good behaviour. I 
know very well, that children of excellent conduct 
do not always excel in intellect ; but we find also, 
that many young and old individuals of great un- 
derstanding do not always behave as they ought 
:o do. These persons often convert their intellect 



144 EDUCATION OF MAN 

into scourges of society, and are the greatest ene- 
mies to the happiness of the race. Let the public 
beware of this in reference to authors, reviewers, 
pamphleteers, gazetteers, and writers of any kind. 
It is a too common tendency among them to say : 
I and my friends alone have understanding, we 
alone are in the right. — Let these oracles be re- 
spected if they write only with conscientiousness. 
Both moral and intellectual endowments are 
important, and therefore ought to be cultivated 
in harmony. By neglecting one or both, so- 
cieties and even nations will come to an end. 

In examining Mankind at large, we shall find 
that general happiness is founded more on morali- 
ty than on intellect. Public establishments for 
relieving distress, improving morality and cor- 
recting manners, are more beneficial to society 
than colleges for the study of mathematics under 
the government of conquerors. Morality ought 
to be the aim, and understanding but a means of 
attaining it. Those, however, who know my 
ideas on the primitive powers of Man, and on 
their moral arrangement, will know that I distin- 
guish morality from religious creeds ; that my 
God is a God of union, who wishes to save and 
not to destroy ; and that, in my opinion, charity, 
or general love, is the greatest of virtues. They 
will perceive that I do not agree with teachers 
who place the love of their country, and that of 
glory, above the love of Mankind ; and that I 



IMPORTANCE OF MORALITY. 145 

maintain the authority and the advantage of the 
Christian principle, which commands us to love 
every one as our neighbor. Jesus called him his 
brother who did the will of his Father. I allow, 
that we owe obligations to our parents, and to our 
country ; indeed I admit that there is a primitive 
feeling of attachment to all beings around us. But 
this propensity is given also to the lower animals, 
and is far inferior to general love. He who con- 
siders the wants of the poor, and the causes of 
those wants ; the deserts of the poor, the possi- 
bility and necessary means of improving their sit- 
uation ; who will never encourage idleness and 
disorder ; who considers attachment as a quality 
of secondary weight ; who relieves him first that 
deserves it best ; and who prefers his countrymen, 
only in so far as they are equally meritorious is far 
nobler than those who are influenced by the love 
of their country or by a religious creed alone, to 
the neglect of this universal Benevolence. 

It is a touchstone of superiority among the 
faculties that their influence is more universal. 
The animal feelings contribute to the preservation 
of individuals, of societies, and in a certain de- 
gree of the species. Human feelings alone place 
society above individuals, and species above so- 
cieties. They coincide with the proceedings of 
nature. Individuals perish, while nations con- 
tinue ; and these disappear while Mankind is pre- 
14 



146 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

served. The faculties which produce such effects, 
must be important in proportion. 

When I state that the sphere of the faculties 
proper to Man is more extensive than that of the 
animal powers, this must not be confounded with 
the other proposition ; that a faculty is more or 
less generally bestowed by nature. The meaning 
of the latter is, that a faculty exists in a greater or 
smaller number of species, while the former de- 
notes that the influence of a faculty extends over 
more beings. Amativeness is very general, while 
Christian charity is confined to Mankind ; but the 
effect of this latter feeling embraces all beings, 
while that of the former is infinitely more limited. 

Thus, in all actions, Morality is to be kept in 
view as the aim and end. Man, by superior 
powers, is the lord of the terrestrial creation ; but 
the same feelings which constitute his superiority 
command him not to abuse other beings. A lower 
propensity excites Man to kill animals, in order to 
live on them ; but the superior feelings forbid us 
to torment them. 

All sects of "religion must agree that morality is 
necessary to the welfare of the human race, how- 
ever different their opinions may be about the 
mode of attaining it. But I have no hesitation in 
declaring against any creed that undermines chari- 
ty, and which teaches children that those who do 



IMPORTANCE OP MORALITY. 147 

not believe as they themselves do, and that those 
who wish to adopt different means in order to please 
their Maker, are damned. As Christianity evi- 
dently tends to unite all men in the presence of 
God, it appears to me that we are entitled to re- 
ject every interpretation of any passage of the 
Gospel which does not agree with general peace. 
The superiority of the Christian principles of mo- 
rality, is proved and recommended by their good 
effects ; and, in this way, belief is converted into 
conviction. 

Modified ideas about the means of pleasing God 
are natural, and present a large field for teaching 
tolerance and mutual forbearance. Various for- 
malities are considered as agreeable to God ; but 
history informs us, that many of those, used by 
different sects, are borrowed from paganism. 
Every one ought to be permitted to do as he thinks 
right, unless the general happiness of Mankind be 
disturbed by it. I think that he is too proud 
who believes that he can add to, or exalt the hap- 
piness of his Creator, to whose dictates all that 
man can do is to submit. In submitting to his 
dictates, we practise the true and undefiled reli- 
gion, viz. in this way we show that Ave are tied to 
God, and obey his will. Thus, it is an important 
point, in teaching religion, never to confound the 
aim with the means. The former is universal hap- 
piness, and loving our neighbor as one's self. The 
means which lead to it are various, and differen- 



148 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ces of opinion in regard to them are to be expected. 
Jt seems, however, a great error to look for hap- 
piness from Divine influence, while the natural 
means of producing it, appointed by the Creator 
to be observed, in the ordinary way of Providence, 
are neglected- 



CHAPTER II. 

EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTIOSV 

The faculties are innate and active in different 
degrees ; but each desires to be satisfied, and all- 
are necessary ; hence it would be wrong to en- 
deavor to annihilate or to neglect any one in the 
institutions of society ; whilst the acts of every 
individual power may be morally good or bad, 
that is, conformable or contrary to the whole of 
the faculties proper to Man. In order to elucidate 
this subject, I shall make first a few general re- 
marks, and then subjoin some details concerning 
the primitive powers. 

In the greater number of persons, the lower 
faculties are the most active, and several of them 
more so than others. This explains the great ac-* 
tivity of the animal nature of man. Again, single 
individuals, each of the sexes, the inhabitants of 
certain provinces, and whole nations> possess in^ 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 149 

dividual faculties more active than others. These 
primitive dispositions, then, must first be studied, 
and each power cultivated in harmony with the 
dictates of general morality, and with the particu- 
lar situation of the nation, sex, or individual in 
question. Any feeling that is naturally too active, 
should never be exerted. Hence, in those children 
and nations, whose character is strongly marked 
by the love of approbation, this feeling should 
never be nourished by education. For, if pre- 
dominant, it becomes the cause of great mischief, 
and it is evidently a great fault to encourage it 
continually, and to hold out approbation and glory 
as the principal reward of every action. If, among 
other nations, Self-esteem be the strongest feeling, 
it should not be encouraged. Such children are 
to be accustomed to attend to what others say of 
them, and to be spoken to freely of their faults. 

On the other hand, no strong feeling can be 
overcome at once ; its activity will appear in one 
way or another, and the object of the teacher or 
governor ought to be to make the best use of it. 
The love of approbation, for instance, may lead 
to war or peace, to idleness or industry, to vice or 
virtue, according to the object approved of by the 
directors. It is the same with every fundamental 
power. Has not every crime been committed, 
and every virtue exercised, under pretence of 
glorifying God, or of obeying God rather than 
men ? 

14* 



150 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The improvement of mankind has been greatly 
retarded by the erroneous notion of our being 
born alike in feelings and understanding, and of 
our being capable of becoming whatever teachers 
please. On account of the differences in the in- 
nate faculties, on the contrary, education must be 
modified in many respects even for nations, as well 
as for individuals and sexes. As the inhabitants of 
cities cannot digest the food on which savages will 
thrive, so civilized nations stand in need of princi- 
ples which cannot enter into the brains of igno- 
rant and uncivilized persons. There are many 
examples in history, where nations have been un- 
grateful to their governors, who have endeavour- 
ed to improve their condition. Missionaries, who 
preach to ignorant and barbarous tribes in the 
same way as to enlightened people, cannot produce 
the desired effect. New-born children cannot bear 
too much light at once ; and the mind, like the 
eyes, must be accustomed by degrees to new im- 
pressions. 

On the other hand, governments are wrong if 
they retard the attainment of the degree of civili- 
zation which their nations require. They are 
mistaken in thinking, that the special tendency of 
primitive faculties can be prohibited by mere com- 
mandment. As no institution, having for its ob- 
ject the annihilation of amativeness, acquisitiveness, 
the love of approbation, or any other feelings, 
given by the Creator, can be permanent ; as its 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 15l 

duration will be shortened, in proportion as such 
feelings are more active, in the same way, as soon 
as our understanding is arrived at a higher degree 
of cultivation, such institutions as are adapted to 
dark ages will no longer suffice. 

The faculties proper to Man being given to 
govern every where, are to be cultivated inces- 
santly, and in every one, whilst the powers com- 
mon to man and animals, should be encouraged 
only in so far as they contribute to the great end 
of the satisfaction of the properly human nature, 
or to general happiness. The animal faculties 
may be employed as means, but not any one 
should become the aim of our existence. They 
may do good, when subordinate, but they produce 
much evil, as soon as their gratification becomes 
the aim of life. It is remarkable that all institu- 
tions, true Christianity excepted, are founded on 
selfish principles, and that by far the greater num- 
ber of the motives, which they propose to man- 
kind, originate in the animal feelings. 

The regulation of the mode in which gratifica- 
tions are sought, is an important point in educa- 
tion. Each faculty when active, wishes to be sat- 
isfied, and will excite those powers which may 
become the means of its gratification. Suppose, 
for example, that we have a desire to be distin- 
guished, we may fight, destroy, calculate, culti- 
rate arts, &c. according as distinction is likely to 



152 EDUCATION OF MAN* 

follow the performance of such and such actions. 
To gain eternal happiness, we may do and we may 
omit various things, according as we are taught 
that it is to result from the one or the other. 
Selfishness, in general, is a great stimulus. The 
gratification of individual faculties may even be- 
come a means of obviating their abuses. Acquisi- 
tiveness, for instance, may be prevented from 
stealing and cheating, &c. by placing before the 
mind the consequences of illegal actions, and by 
showing, that the best calculated selfishness is that 
which is combined with honesty. 

Though it is a pity, that, in common education, 
the satisfaction of the inferior faculties is generally 
represented as the aim of our existence, and of the 
whole of our actions ; their gratifications, how- 
ever, may be of great use, being a source of 
pleasure, and the contrary a punishment. The 
idle being pleased by vacancy ; the dainty- 
mouthed by cakes and sweatmeats ; the vain by 
decorations, fine clothes, titles, and every kind of 
showy appearance ; the mechanician by ingenious- 
ly contrived instruments ; the painter by colours. 
There are as many sorts of reward or punishment 
as natural gifts, but the gratification of those pow- 
ers which are not requisite to our profession, 
should be only an object of reward and recreation, 
the difference between aim and means being con- 
stantly attended to. 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 153 

A question which has been often repeated 
by philosophers, may be brought in here, viz. 
Whether it is better to have many or few wants ? 
Want is here synonymous with Desire, or the ten- 
dency of individual faculties to seek gratification ; 
and there are as many sorts of wants or desires as 
there are primitive powers. 

To answer this question, we must bear in mind, 
that the satisfaction of each desire gives pleasure ; 
that there are as many sorts of pleasure as there 
are faculties, and that desires and pleasures are 
proportionate to the activity of the powers ; more- 
over, that the pains, displeasures, or states of dis- 
satisfaction, are also as numerous as, and propor- 
tion to the activity of, the faculties. Thus, wants- 
or active faculties may render us happy or un** 
happy. 

In order to prepare happiness for ourselves, let 
us exercise those faculties which we have the pow- 
er of gratifying, and check the activity of those 
which we cannot satisfy ; taking constantly for 
granted, that morality is the aim of our life, and 
that no animal power shall be permitted to become 
predominant ; that Ostentation, for instance, must 
remain subordinate to Justice, and that spending 
our superfluities on purposes useful to society, is 
preferable to employing them in the gratification 
of any animal propensity. 



154 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The proper employment of the faculties being' 
so important, this knowledge is not only neces- 
sary to teachers and governors, but it should be- 
come an object of instruction for every person, 
and be taught and learned by heart. 

We must eat and drink, because we must 
change the substance of our body, and we are 
excited to do so by hunger and thirst. Rut the 
laws of digestion and nutrition might be explain- 
ed, the respective organs shown, and the necessity 
of submitting to the dictates of creation taught. 
The knowledge of the general rules of Hygeia is 
useful to every one. Let then children know, 
that they must eat to live, but that they do not 
.live io eat and to drink ; let them feel the advan- 
tages of sobriety, and the consequences of indi- 
gestion ; let them see the vice of gluttony and 
drunkenness in nature, and be accustomed to tem- 
perance, and to the moderate use of every sort of 
food. It will be easy to render them attentive to 
the quantity and quality of aliments necessary to 
be taken, and to those which do not agree with 
their digestive organs. It is important that they 
should be able to resist the desire to eat of every 
dish that is placed on the table. But it is a great 
fault of parents and teachers to preach sobriety, 
and themselves to give a contrary example. The 
example is more effectual than the precept. I 
think it also wrong to give dainties and liquors to 
children as rewards for it is in this manner that they 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 155 

are taught to value them. They may enjoy the 
sense of taste, but they ought not to be governed 
by it. 

In speaking of hunger and thirst, food, beverage 
and nutrition, a great deal of knowledge may be 
given to children at table, with respect to the 
natural history of the three kingdoms, and with 
respect to chemistry and physiology. Parents 
might direct the conversation towards convenient 
subjects, and enter into farther explanations after 
dinner. Certainly this supposes the parents them- 
selves to be well informed, which, however, is 
too frequently not the case. The duty of in- 
struction devolves particularly on the mother ; but 
to be able to do her duty, she must have acquired 
notions herself. If there be several children, the 
elder may assist the mother in informing the 
younger. 

Is not the great curiosity of children a hint of 
Nature, that they ought to be made acquainted 
with many subjects ? Why then do we not rather 
cherish than suppress it ? We should always 
answer, even when questions are put to which 
delicacy does not allow us to reply. In such 
cases, we may find an excuse by observing, that 
they are not yet able to understand the thing. 
This will be believed, if we show them the reality 
of such an excuse in other examples. But they 
must never be told they ought not to know such 



156 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

things. A formal denial will excite their curi- 
osity. 

The objects which concern cookery, eating and 
drinking, and play-things, furnish sufficient mat- 
ter to different conversations. We may put ques- 
tions about the origin, usefulness, and preparations 
of aliments. Each object will offer a large field 
of information. I suppose, for example's sake, 
that potatoes are placed on the table, the mother 
may ask, To what kingdom of natural history do 
they belong ? According to the age of the chil- 
dren, various questions may be added. After the 
first notions are communicated, the mother may 
continue to inquire about the parts of the plant 
which we eat under the name Potatoes. The dis- 
cussion again will require to be more or less de- 
tailed, according to the capacities of the children. 
Whatever cannot be shown at home, could be 
noticed on taking walks into the fields or else- 
where. In what country are potatoes indigenous ? 
Geography will come in. How are they culti- 
vated, &c. Then notions of agriculture may be 
communicated. 

Another time, the mother may begin a conver- 
sation concerning bread. Children may learn the 
difference between rye, wheat, oats, &c. ; the man- 
ner of grinding corn, of baking bread, &c. In 
this way, every article may be made an object of 
instruction and amusement. Children will learn 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 157 

ideas and combine them ; they will know every 
thing around them, and will feel a desire to know 
it. They will at the same time learn to think 
when they speak, and to express no ideas without 
reflecting on them. 

Bodily exercise is another important point in 
education. Muscular activity is greater in child- 
hood than in any later age. It is neceesary to the 
development of the body and to health. To 
keep children quiet is acting against nature. The 
body, the intellectual and moral faculties, may be 
exercised at the same time. Playing is to be con- 
sidered as a mere change of occupation, and many 
things may be taught by means of it ; to dance, 
for instance, to climb, to leap, to swim, to go on 
horseback, to fence, &c. belong to a true plan of 
education. The muscles of the arms, or legs, or 
trunk may be exercised according to the utility 
of such exercise in any future situation, or according 
to their local weakness. All gymnastic amuse- 
ments serve to these purposes. It is to be under- 
stood, that bodily exercise ought to be proportion- 
ate to the innate strength and progressive growth 
of the individuals and not beyond the innate ca- 
pacity, since in that case the misapplication of a 
principle will do harm. It is said, that Milo 
carried on his shoulders a calf day by day, till it 
was full grown. 



15 



158 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

On the play-ground, children may be made ac- 
quainted with a great number of objects, their 
physical qualities, such as form, dimensions, 
weight, color, distances, phenomena of hydrau- 
lics, mechanics, and chemistry. Nothing, for in- 
stance, is more easy than to teach what is called 
gravity, affinity, attraction. Let children collect 
stones of different specific weight, let them make 
figures iu the sand, such as circles, triangles, 
squares. They will learn such notions with Us? 

pleasure when they are confined to the benches. 

It is known, that girls, in amusing themselves with 
dolls, exercise many faculties necessary to their 
future condition in life. 

The external senses deserve particular attention. 
Though they are not sufficient to make us ac* 
quainted with the external world, they are, never- 
theless, indispensable means to acquire distinct per- 
ceptions. Blind and deaf persons show, how in 
the former the sense of touch, and in the hitler 
that of sight, can be improved. For those who feel 
an aversion to touch innoxious insects, for instance, 
a lizard, a frog, a crawfish, or even velvet and other 
tactile objects, an early habit of doing so is advi- 
sable. It is the same with regard to a dislike to 
certain smells, tastes, colors or sounds. The cars 
ought to be exercised to bear the noise of a gun, 
of thunder, &c. 



BACH FACULTY TKNDS TO ACTION. 159 

Children ought to be accustomed to speak loud, 

and to pronounce ;ill possible sounds and articula- 
tions, even (hose of such foreign languages as they 

will be obliged to learn ; for almost every lan- 
guage has its particular sounds which we pro- 
nounce with difficulty, if we have not been early 
accustomed to them. Accordingly, nations who 
have the greatest number of sounds in their speech, 

learn the most easily to pronounce foreign lan- 
guages, since they know their articulations, by 

having met with similar sounds in their own lan- 
guage. The French and English having no gut- 

tural sounds in their language, find it difficult to 

imitate them in the German. The Gei mans, on the 

contrary, who have; not sounds of / and col* tin 

French, or of //» in the English, acquirethem with 

difficulty. The inhabitants of Otaheite, when 
trying to pronounce the name of Cook, always 
said 'ronton. 

As to the interna] powers, it is a great fault in 

education, to think exclusively of the intellectual 
fatuities, and to try to conduct mankind by pre- 
cepts. It never should be forgotten, thai children, 
as well as adult persons, always ad by feelings, 

and that charity and justice are no sciences and 

that knowledge is not virtue. Precepts alone 

have no more effect on feelings than on under- 
standing. To say, be just, patient, and benevo- 
lent, will neither produce nor exercise justice', pa- 
tience, nor benevolence, any more than we should 



160 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

understand mathematics, chemistry or philosophy, 
if we were only exhorted to study them. Pre- 
cepts must be put into execution, and this alone is 
of practical use. Two ideas, then, must be well 
understood ; first, that the faculties which give 
feelings, and those which constitute intellect, ex- 
ist independently of each other ; and, secondly, 
that they act in different degrees of force in chil- 
dren as well as adults. In this sense, we may say 
with De la Motte, that the child is already a 
man, and the man still a child. It is the same 
idea which De la Brutere on characters (T. 
II. chap, xi.) has detailed, in stating, that chil- 
dren, like adults, are affectionate or selfish, coura- 
geous or timid, candid or disingenuous, lazy or 
industrious, benevolent or envious, peaceable or 
quarrelsome, unsteady or persevering, humble or 
proud, just or unjust. The powers are, indeed, 
the same in children and adults ; they are only 
a} plied to different objects. The same person, 
when a child, may be jealous or envious about 
sweetmeats, and when adult, about places of 
honor. The same faculty renders a child self- 
willed, a boy disobedient, and a man muti- 
nous. Mr. Combe has well expressed the same 
idea; " The child," says he, "who trembles 
at the threat of being shut up in a dark closet ; 
who exhibits to us with delight his new suit of 
clothes ; who fights about a marble ; or who 
covets his neighbour's top, is under the influence 
of the same faculties which, in future years, may 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 161 

make him tremble under the anticipation of a fall 
of stocks ; make him desire to be invested with a 
star and garter ; contend for an island or a king- 
dom, or lead him to covet his neighbour's proper- 
ty." (Essays on Phrenology, p. 315.) Hence 
the individual tendencies must be observed, im- 
peded, or encouraged and directed. A young 
girl, whom I know, was prohibited from being 
imperious to servants and common people ; she 
continued to amuse herself with giving orders to 
such of her playthings as represented servants, 
and with scolding them. When she was told that 
she committed a fault, she excused herself by say- 
ing, that it was merely a play. But the parents 
were intelligent enough not to confound the feel- 
ing of self-esteem with any object of its satisfac- 
tion, and this amusement was equally interdicted. 

In the cultivation of the feelings the natural lan- 
guage is of the greatest importance. Have the 
feeling which you wish to inspire, speak its 
natural language, and you will impress the juve- 
nile minds. Avoid particularly the natural ex- 
pressions of the inferior affections, as of anger, 
jealousy, envy, impatience, &c. In showing anger 
to children, you give a practical lesson. Follow 
the example of the philosopher who said : I should 
punish you if I were not angry. 

If any inferior feeling be too energetic, it is 
proper to avoid every circumstance that may put 
15* 



162 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

it into action. Accordingly, never vex quarrel- 
some or obstinate children, particularly do not at 
length yield to them and let them have their own 
way ; never desire such children to do what is 
unjust ; make every demand on them quietly, but 
never yield. 

It is essential to know which faculties assist 
each other, and which act in opposition, in order 
to direct the actions and omissions of man. At- 
tachment will generally rest on objects, men, ani- 
mals or things, whereby the other feelings may 
be satisfied at the same time, or, at least, not pre- 
vented from being so. It is assisted by mildness 
and cautiousness. Children endowed with these 
feelings, and with ideality and love of approbation 
in a high degree, in order that they may not be de 
ceived in their dealings with man, should be made 
acquainted with the difference of men, and with 
the various motives of their actions. 

Courage is not given to indulge quarrelsome- 
ness and anger, nor to effect gratification of ven- 
geance. Its aim is to defend what is absolutely 
just. If not active enough, it ought to be en- 
couraged, not only by words, but by exposing the 
individual to situations which may appear annoy- 
ing. Timid children will become less fearful by 
being accustomed to society. If courage be too 
strong, its bad consequences may be shown ; and, 
according to circumstances, attachment, selfish- 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 163 

ness, the love of approbation, or the moral feel- 
ings, may be opposed as motives to restrain it. 

The faculty of Firmness greatly assists the ac- 
tivity of every other power, but it also produces 
many disorders, particularly if it be naturally 
strong in combination with large self-esteem, and 
if parents, in order to form the character of their 
children, as they say, allow them the gratification 
of every fancy. Such beings are exasperated by 
the least resistance in future life, and become fre- 
quently unhappy. Firmness alone will never pro- 
duce great actions. It only causes the active fac- 
ulties to persevere. Hence the same person may 
persevere much in one respect, and very little in 
another. It has particular influence on self-esteem, 
the love of approbation, conscientiousness and rev- 
erence. Ideality and the want of order and time, 
are in opposition to perseverance. 

The direction of amativeness and of the reli- 
gious sentiments is of prime influence. These 
feelings appear commonly later, sometimes, how- 
ever, earlier in life. 

The longer the difference of the sexes can be 
concealed from children, the better. But as soon 
as children are inclined to abuse their persons, let 
them know the dreadful consequences of such a 
vice on the whole body, and on the manifestations 
of the mind. Incalculable mischief is done to in- 



164 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

dividuals and to mankind at large by the abuses 
of amativeness. Many become insane and, in nu- 
merous cases, mind and body are ruined and all 
happiness undermined, by its disorderly gratifica- 
tions. Parents and teachers commonly are not 
watchful enough in this respect. The picture 
may be varied, according to the knowledge of the 
child, and to the bad effects which are already 
visible in him, Every thing which excites ner- 
vous irritability, and accelerates the circulation of 
the blood, must be avoided. Bodily exercise, 
however, cannot be dispensed with, as it is neces- 
sary to produce sleep. If the functions of propa- 
gation be known, the influence of the vice, not 
only on him, but on generations to come, may be 
detailed. Many ideas of this kind are mentioned 
in books on physical education. I refer to them, 
mentioning again, that a too anxious taciturnity 
of parents concerning these points, will rather do 
harm than good, because the propensity is innate, 
and acts without restraint, if its destination, and 
the consequences of its abuses, be not clearly shown 
to children. Being informed of its importance, 
they will more readily resist, and submit to those 
means which seem necessary to restrain it. 

The regulation of the religious feelings also de- 
serves great attention. It is known how very dif- 
ferent the ways of worshipping have been, from 
human sacrifices to adoration in spirit and in truth. 
It is remarkable tt*°* at all times continency has 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 165 

been considered as agreeable to God. The priests 
of the ancient Egyptians avoided wine and wives. 
The Levites were forbidden to have intercourse 
with females during the time of their sacerdotal 
service. In Ceylon and Siam the priests are pro- 
hibited from marrying. The Roman Church re- 
quires an observance of a similar law. 

Religious precepts of various kinds, and the 
most opposite opinions, when proposed as the will 
of God, have been listened to. The majority of 
mankind is credulous. Say that it is necessary to 
sacrifice animals, to burn perfume, to ring bells, to 
fast, to sing, to make prostrations, to dance, to 
whip the body, or to do various other things in 
honor of God, and man will comply.. Even those 
who reflect for themselves, and admit the revela- 
tion of Christian principles, will differ in their 
explication of them. The question, then, is often 
put, Who can decide which is the true religion ? 
As the tree is known by its fruit, so is the man by 
his actions, and a doctrine by its effects. I think 
that the touchstone of every principle, religious 
and moral, is the same, viz. its tendency to pro- 
mote the glory of God and the common happi- 
ness of mankind. It is absurd, and even blasphe- 
mous, to hold out any doctrine as coming from 
God, the manifest tendency of which is to in- 
flict evil. I adopt, therefore, only that explana- 
tion of every passage of Christianity which fa- 
vors general love, 



166 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

There are religious people who agree with re- 
spect to principles, but vary as to the particular 
applications of them. They insist much on some, 
and are indifferent about other points ; and some- 
times follow the absurdities of their own imagina- 
tions ; they explain one passage of the Gospel ac- 
cording to its spirit, and take another literally. 
Others admit the principles, and say that they 
believe in them, but care very little for their prac- 
tice ; whereas the least portion of intelligence and 
honesty might enable them to perceive, that the 
practice is better than the mere assertion of be- 
lief. 

In religious education, as well as in every other 
sort of instruction, three things are particularly to 
be kept in view ; first, The objects taught must 
be suitable to the station of those instructed ; 
secondly, the knowledge communicated must be 
applicable ; and, thirdly, The necessary means for 
attaining the end must be pointed out and attend- 
ed to. With respect to the first point, the choice 
of objects to be taught, there can be little difficul- 
ty in deciding between the advantages of commu- 
nicating a knowledge of fabulous tales or exam- 
ples of moral conduct ; of teaching habitual char- 
ity or vice. Children ought to be taught that 
moral conduct is the aim and end of their exist- 
ence, and that morality is indispensable to the 
welfare of individuals and of society. And mor- 
alists, who wish for the improvement of mankind, 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 167 

ought not to reject any means of attaining that end, 
except those which have been tried and found in- 
effectual ; but these should be given up, of what- 
ever date and authority they may be, and only 
those that prove useful be employed. 

Thus, all powers should be directed with a 
view to practical life, the intellectual faculties to 
the acquisition of positive knowledge, and the 
feelings to the promotion of the general welfare. 

There is another great error committed in many 
schools of England, viz. the third part of the year 
is given up to idleness. This may be necessary, 
because the objects to be taught are few, and be- 
cause the faculties employed are fatigued, and re- 
quire rest or vacation-days ; but these might be 
filled up by the useful employment of other facul- 
ties, which could be exercised one after another. 
In that way more knowledge would be acquired, 
and sufficient time allowed for relaxation to the 
individual faculties. 

Natural history, mechanical and chemical ex- 
periments, are well suited to the capacities of 
youth, and would delight many ; architecture, 
painting, music, geography, theatrical perform- 
ances, &c. would please others. No better recre- 
ation would be wished for. The great error is, 
that all children are obliged to learn the same 
things ; the boys Latin and Greek, and the girls 



168 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

music and drawing. Yet out of the prodigious 
number of girls who learn these arts, how few are 
there, who, after they become mistresses of their 
own time, and after they have the choice of their 
own amusements, continue to practise them for the 
pure pleasure they afford. Even those who take 
pleasure in good music, are better pleased with 
hearing others than in performing themselves. 
How often are the labors of years, and the expen- 
diture of large sums of money, lost in this way ? 
What a pity, that we are obliged to learn so many 
things for no end but to forget them ! 

Accomplishments in general are not sufficiently 
distinguished from necessary and useful instruc- 
tion. The latter is often neglected, and things 
are taught for which children have no taste, such 
as drawing and music, while they never would 
take a pencil in their hand nor play a tune from 
choice. How glad are they, therefore, when the 
time for lessons and masters is over, when they 
are of age, and their education is finished. Many 
women, possessed of such accomplishments, never 
touch the heart of a man. They have learnt 
many things except those they ought to know. 
They find a partner only for their money, but the 
result of such a union is daily seen. Leisure time 
alone should be filled up by accomplishments, and 
whoever does not cultivate them from his own 
impulse, should not cultivate them at all. 



EACH FACULTT TENDS TO ACTION. 169 

Order is of great importance in our affairs. 
Children ought to be accustomed to take care of 
whatever belongs to them, and young females 
should be exercised in keeping the family-accounts. 
Order does not depend only on the understand- 
ing, but it requires also experience. This cannot 
be infused into the mind by precept, but must be 
acquired by practice. Every one should learn to 
employ his own powers, and to regulate his own 
conduct, and for that purpose he should be placed 
into various situations, and left to his own re- 
sources. This is particularly necessary to boys. 
Girls are more dependent, and, in many respects, 
they may be accustomed to trust to the experience 
of others, and to conform to the customs of society. 
They must be more reserved in manners and in 
their moral conduct, because their faults are of 
greater consequence than those of boys to their 
station in society ; for repentance and tears will 
not wash out the errors and immoral conduct of 
girls. On the other hand however, prudery should 
be avoided with the same carefulness, and not be 
confounded with delicacy and modesty. 

Delicacy of sentiment and refined manners are 
a great ornament, and ought always to be cultiva- 
ted. All odd motions or attitudes, and awkward 
gestures, should be watched and prevented from 
becoming habitual. 

16 



170 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The reflecting faculties deserve particular care. 
Let children be taught, if possible, to understand 
what they say and do, and to express their own 
ideas with precision. I have already mentioned, 
that those persons are mistaken, who think that 
reasoning can be improved only by one sort of 
study, such as of language or mathematics. The 
fact is, that studying any branch accurately, ap- 
plying judgment to it, and reflecting on the rela- 
tions of Cause and Effect which it exhibits, will 
cultivate the reasoning powers with equal effect. 
Comparison and Causality are necessary in impor- 
tant and in trifling things. If children have great 
difficulty in reasoning, the first attempt here, as 
in every other branch, is the most difficult part of 
the work. We should therefore allow them time 
to reflect, and wish that they should rather ac- 
quire one distinct idea, than many confused no- 
tions of different things. 

The erroneous method of instruction generally 
pursued, is the cause why many, when at the end 
of their school-education, must become their own 
teachers. Those who have not talent or courage 
enough to do so, remain within the circle of me- 
diocrity, and are mere followers in the paths of 
others. Yet copying, or merely -imitating others, 
is the death of arts and sciences. 

I conclude this Chapter with repeating, that 
each faculty tends to act ; that each faculty may be 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 171 

used and abused ; that all faculties ought to be 
employed in augmenting the common happiness ; 
and that moral conduct and reflection are the prin- 
cipal means of producing it ; but that precepts 
alone will not change and improve mankind. 
Their influence is little in comparison to that of 
social intercourse. The manners of the world, 
the spirit of families and of parties, customs and 
received opinions, are often opposite to those 
which we are taught at school. We hear sobriety 
praised, and in our families we find luxury ; disin- 
terested conduct is highly spoken of in our books, 
but we live in the midst of a crowd of busy 
creatures, whose most anxious thoughts are direct- 
ed towards gain and vanity ; and we observe, that 
respect and consideration are paid to others in 
proportion to their wealth, idleness, privileges, 
and fanciful, nay selfish distinctions. School- 
education is then soon forgotten. Whoever, 
therefore, has an influence on society, let him con- 
tribute all in his power to cause the same spirit to 
prevail in education, in legislation, in social inter- 
course, in writings, in arts, and in sciences. 



CHAPTER III. 

THERE IS NO ACTION WITHOUT A MOTIVE. 

The principle that no action takes place with- 
out a motive, is the same as that there is no effect 



172 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

without a cause and the law of causation exists in 
the moral as well as the physical world. Yet the 
nature of the motives of our actions, and their ori- 
gin, are not sufficiently understood. 

As long as it is believed that education can cre- 
ate faculties, the whole of mankind will be treated 
in the same manner, and the same motives will be 
proposed to all men. But when we know the in- 
fluence of innate dispositions, we perceive the ne- 
cessity of having recourse in each person to his 
natural powers, and of fortifying or guiding them 
by cultivation. 

I here repeat, that our feelings, inferior and su- 
perior, furnish the principal motives of our actions, 
that, in consequence, the motives are different like 
the faculties themselves ; but that the proper aim 
or object of our actions is only one. I take it also 
for granted, that the cultivation of the faculties 
proper to man is the aim of his existence ; since 
they alone constitute moral rectitude, and general 
happiness, and submission to the laws of creation. 

The superior faculties, when they act by them- 
selves from their internal energy, do so with 
pleasure, and constitute the kingdom of love. But, 
whenever they must be excited in any way, or 
when the energy of the inferior faculties requires 
to be moderated or restrained, then government 
and obedience, or the rule of the law, begins. As 



MOTIVES OP ACTIONS. 173 

the inferior faculties, however, exist in human na- 
ture, and stand in need of constant regulation, it is 
evident, that Jesus, in His own person fulfilled the 
law and could not abolish it. Its existence was 
the will of His heavenly Father, and the constitu- 
tion of human nature evidently requires it. 

The motives arising from the superior faculties 
of man, are also termed Religious and Moral ; re- 
ligious, as far as we stand in relation to God as 
governor and ruler ; and moral, in so far as it is 
our duty to act in such or such a manner with re- 
spect to mankind. 

There can be no doubt that our Maker has 
bound us by laws which must be obeyed. These 
laws are established by the Creator, and have been 
confirmed by revelation. Man is a moral being, 
and the law of his natural morality has been con- 
firmed by Jesus. This matter, exercising the 
greatest influence on the happiness of Man, is con- 
sidered, with details, in my work on the Philo- 
sophical Principles of Phrenology. 

Children may soon be made to comprehend 
that they cannot change the laws of nature, and 
to see the necessity of submitting to them. When 
they understand the tendency of these laws, they 
will feel respect and veneration for that Almighty 
Being who instituted them, and for His all-wise 
appointments. But it will be a matter of greater 
16* 



174 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

difficulty to make every one comprehend and ho- 
nestly love the general good as the aim of our ex- 
istence, though it is conformable equally to the 
law, natural and revealed. The desire for the 
common welfare of mankind, is not strong enough 
in man, to allow us to depend on it as a sufficient 
motive of self-direction, and, accordingly, various 
means have been, and still must be employed, in 
order t direct our actions towards this point. A 
knowledge of the different motives of our actions, 
then, is indispensable. If the moral law be writ- 
ten in the heart of a man, that is, if the faculties 
of conscientiousness, Benevolence, and Reverence 
be naturally most powerful in any person, let us 
appeal to them. If another be more disposed to 
obey, because it is commanded by the revealed 
law, that is, if his Hope and Marvellousness be 
naturally the most powerful faculties, let us not 
reject these motives. The same aim is to be at- 
tained, but the means may vary. 

If the superior motives of man ; — his natural 
charity, his religious faith, and his reasoning 
powers are not sufficient to direct his actions, in- 
ferior motives must be employed, such as love of 
approbation, acquisitiveness, reward and punish- 
ment, fear, &c. Many persons are prevented 
from stealing, through the criminal code, or the 
fear of hell, or of being dishonored. 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 175 

The kingdom of fear and selfishness is infinitely 
more extensive than that of love. The former 
has existed, exists, and will long continue to exist, 
but the latter cannot come, as long as selfishness 
and the love of approbation are presented as the 
aim of our conduct. While these are considered 
as the objects of human existence, conquerors will 
prevail over their satellites, like Brennus, who 
sent wine from Italy to his countrymen, saying, 
If you like this wine, come and help me to con- 
quer the country where it grows. 

It is essential for a teacher, or any one who di- 
rects others, to know that different motives may 
produce the same action in different persons. 
One child may behave well through attachment 
to his parents ; another through fear, or the love 
of approbation ; a third through selfish views, or 
a feeling of duty. 

Moreover, it ought to be kept in view as a 
principle in moral and intellectual education, that 
children do many things by mere imitation. Thev 
often adopt the manner of thinking and acting of 
those with whom they live. They consider as 
good that which they hear praised and see done 
by their parents. For this reason we know by 
the children whether we are liked or disliked in a 
family. This propensity to imitate will produce 
most effect in children whose natural character is 
not very determinate, an d in them it may be ap- 



176 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

plied with advantage as a means of instruction. 
Parents therefore become the best moral teachers ; 
but let their moral conduct agree with their pre- 
cepts, if they expect to produce any effect by their 
teaching. If they show in words an abhorrence 
of vice, let not their actions be stained by impuri- 
ty. When they teach their children to avoid bad 
company, and to esteem virtue and excellence 
above the distinctions of wealth and rank, let 
them not be encircled themselves in fashion and 
vanity. If they exhort them to order, truth, can- 
dor, and charity, let them prove their sincerity by 
their own actions. 

Many children, at an early age, are capable of 
feeling arguments, but several cannot. Parents 
and teachers should be always just and reasonable 
in what they require of them, and then never yield 
to any resistance or remonstrance whatever on the 
part of the child. A habit of submission is of the 
utmost consequence to the moral improvement of 
children. 

Children, however, as well as adults, like what 
is conformable to their natural dispositions. If 
their intellectual powers are very active, they may 
be allowed to follow their dictates, and to deter- 
mine even their own future situation in life. But, 
if parents wish to bring them up to professions 
which they themselves prefer, and not according 
to the natural gifts of the children, or if children 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 177 

are not distinguished by their talents, they must 
be encouraged, by various means, and sometimes 
even forced, to exertion, and to make a choice of 
employment. Without this, many children would 
become careless and idle. It becomes necessary to 
impose tasks whenever the natural dispositions 
do not induce children to attain the knowledge re- 
quisite for their profession. It is always an error 
to allow idleness and free hours as a reward, be- 
cause such a proceeding implies that learning is a 
punishment. It is not very judicious, neither, to 
conduct education, so that kings' birth-days and 
holydays are liked, because they exempt children 
from attending school. This is nearly as bad in 
principle, as compelling them to learn verses 
or write versions by way of punishment. Certain- 
ly a better mode of chastisement, if necessary, 
might be found. This kind of punishment is 
similar to that inflicted by some priests who as a 
penance command a repetition of certain prayers. 

The question concerning emulation and its use- 
ful or dangerous influence is discussed among in- 
stitutors. Some prove its good, others blame its 
bad consequences. It is founded on a strong fun- 
damental feeling on the love of distinction or ap- 
probativeness which may be used or abused. 
Those who have certain powers very strong are 
pleased with their gratification, they do not want 
any other motive. But emulation may become 
an excitement, of any feeling as well as intellectual 



178 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

power. It is a great stimulus for children to learn 
their lessons, but as its influence is so great in so- 
ciety and the cause of numberless disorders, and 
as it is so much cultivated in social relations, I 
find it advisable to omit it entirely in school edu- 
cation. At all events no praise should be be- 
stowed except on talent and virtue. It certainly 
should be better if we could think that in doing 
all that which is to be done we do merely our 
duty. 

Selfishness and approbativeness act with the 
most different appearances according to their com- 
binations with other faculties and to external cir- 
cumstances. It is known, and I have already men- 
tioned that their activity has been considered, by 
some philosophers as sufficient to explain all the 
actions of men, and even as the source of superior 
talents. Indeed, whenever we omit any thing, in 
order to gain any earthly or heavenly enjoyment, 
selfishness is active ; and whenever we wish to be 
approved of, the love of approbation comes into 
play. The tendencies of these two powers are 
easily distinguished in children ; but I repeat, that 
their preponderance produces great mischief in 
society ; that they are too much cultivated in com- 
mon education, and that it is an error, the evil 
consequences of which are incalculable, to repre- 
sent them as the chief aim of our existence, while 
they ought to be only secondary motives. I have 
seen children endowed with a great deal of pride 



MOTIVES OF ACTIONS. 179 

and love of approbation, who became quite in- 
toxicated by being praised, and, certainly from 
this excitement, committed new faults, and some- 
times became intolerable for several days. 

Let us examine with some more details whether 
selfishness and the love of approbation produce 
talents ; and whether the satisfaction of these two 
feelings should be the aim of all our actions ? Is 
it true, that arts and sciences originate and im- 
prove in proportion as they are patronized by 
pecuniary rewards and honor ? In Greece, the 
masterpieces of poetry, eloquence, history, and 
philosophy, were not the result of patronage. 
The successors of Alexander the Great encou- 
raged the learned, yet sciences lost their grandeur 
and originality. Only commentaries, compila- 
tions, and imitations became numerous. In reading 
history, we meet with many great men who found 
their reward in the cultivation of the sciences and 
the arts themselves, and who were even persecuted 
on their account. Many others have persevered 
in contributing to the improvement of arts and 
sciences, only until they met with rewards and 
honors ; and it was fortunate if this did not hap- 
pen too soon, as it appeared they worked only for 
them, and became idle when their aim was at- 
tained. 

If individuals, because they possess some talents, 
are to receive the privilege of deciding on the 



180 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

value of every scientific production, their eleva- 
tion to distinction becomes a great obstacle to the 
progress of arts and sciences, because the learned 
themselves are not free from selfish passions, and, 
like the vulgar, are ready to hinder others from 
attaining similar enjoyments and honors. Few 
are disposed to acknowledge the superiority of 
others. 

As the great maxim of a liberal government is, 
Let them act, so the true patronage consists in not 
preventing talents from exercising themselves, as 
long as absolute justice towards mankind is not in- 
jured ; in rewarding productions according to 
their influence on the general welfare, and in re- 
warding only services actually performed. Among 
the abuses concerning rewards and distinctions, I 
mention only the fault to give to regular profes- 
sors the exclusive right of teaching, and what is 
still worse, to permit them to delegate their du- 
ties to any substitute .they may choose. Monop- 
oly impedes improvement in every thing. If the 
services of a professor be useful to society in other 
avocations, and he cannot attend to his scientific 
pursuits, his professorship ought to be transferred 
to the person who, next to him, cultivates that 
branch with pleasure and success. 

It is certain that reward and distinction do not 
produce talents, though they are of great weight 
in exciting and directing the actions of all the 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 181 

faculties. I even infer from history, that man- 
kind will suffer, and that all institutions will re- 
main imperfect, as long as selfishness and glory 
are the aim of our actions ; or, in other words, as 
long as places are looked for with a zeal in pro- 
portion to the profit they hring, and to the dis- 
tinction they bestow on the possessor, whilst all 
our actions ought to tend to the common benefit 
and honor of mankind. Nothing but the place 
we occupy in society, and fitness for its duties, 
should give distinction. It should be considered 
as every man's duty, to do all that he is capable of 
doing for the general happiness of those among 
whom he lives. Private interest, when exclusive- 
ly pursued, is the greatest enemy of morality. 
Whoever contends for it as the chief aim of our 
existence, acts after the impulse of his animal na- 
ture ; — he is not a man. 

Selfishness, it is true, has greatly contributed to 
abolish various kinds of injustice, for every one 
is ready to resist his oppressor. In religious and 
civil legislation, privileges are more and more 
limited, and the rights of man become more equal 
than they were in ancient times. We no longer 
believe that all mankind is made for the sake of a 
few. Indeed, as long as there is any thing to 
gain, there will be many who will contend for in- 
dependence, out of mere selfishness ; but the princi- 
ple from which they act, though hitherto auxiliary 
to the common good, cannot be applauded ; for it 
17 



182 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

would lead them to tyrannize in their turn, if 
they had the power. 

Mankind cannot become happy, if selfishness 
be not replaced, or at least mitigated, by a supe- 
rior motive of action. He who pursues his own 
advantage only, so far as he can do so without in- 
juring another, is just ; he who gives up his su- 
perfluity rather than to do harm to another, is 
noble ; he who works only for the common wel- 
fare is the most noble, and no one, but him, de- 
serves that name. 

A great step towards perfection, would be the 
full and practical admission of the principle that 
every one has the right to employ his talents to 
the utmost for his own benefit, as far as he can do 
it without injuring others. This system of gov- 
ernment is certainly far superior to that of exclu- 
sive privileges of any kind : — Many battles, how- 
ever, will be fought betwixt selfishness and bigotry 
on the one hand, and reason and sound morality 
on the other, before it is generally admitted and 
followed. 

It must be added, however, that the adoption 
even of this principle cannot be expected to obviate 
misery, nor luxury, with all its fatal consequences, 
for this simple reason, that the natural endow- 
ments of individuals are very different, and that 
those who have more talents will govern the othen 



EACH FACULTY TENDS TO ACTION. 183 

in one way or another. While selfishness con- 
tinues to be the motive of their actions, the highly 
gifted will employ the weak to advance their own 
ends. The poor will be constantly dependent on 
the rich, and will serve them as the only thing 
they can do to live. Supremacy will, of neces- 
sity, fall on single individuals. Nations also, 
through selfishness, interfere with each other, and 
war becomes unavoidable. The fortunate com- 
mander finds satellites whose advantage it is to 
serve him, as workmen serve the manufacturer ; 
he avails himself of their talents, and tells his 
countrymen that peace, and obedience to his will, 
are essential to their happiness. Is not this the 
state of Man as far as history informs us ? And 
this must continue to be his state, wherever per- 
sonal welfare is the only rule of conduct. Tyran- 
ny causes revolutions ; revolutions, again, are pro- 
ductive of tyranny ; and all this has its origin in 
selfishness. There is no possibility of changing 
this permanent circle of events in mankind, ex- 
cept by subordinating private interest to common 
advantage. 

This doctrine is not new, it is the basis of Chris- 
tianity ; but it has been dreadfully abused at dif- 
ferent times, even by pretended teachers of mo- 
rality. It is no where practised in its full vigor 
and happy is the nation whose governors follow i 
even in a limited degree. But it ought at least t< 
be generally propagated and its good effects showr 
to every one who is capable of appreciating them 



184 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The difference of motives does not only exist 
in children, but also in adults and whoever wishes 
to determine different individuals to the same con- 
duct must appeal to different faculties of the mind. 
He must follow the example of the great apostle 
who became all things to all men, in order to save 
them. Whoever has only one motive of salvation 
to propose, will never keep all mankind together, 
and whoever wishes to move strongly must appeal 
to the feelings. Experience however shows that 
few persons can be guided by the superior feelings 
alone, and that reasoning is seldom of any great 
weight as a motive of conduct ; it is also obvious, 
on the other hand, that the greater number of per- 
sons are actuated by inferior motives, and even by 
commandment and by fear. Yet I would recom- 
mend, that the propriety of making use of all pos- 
sible inducements to produce virtuous conduct 
should be kept constantly in view, and that every 
motive should be employed, beginning with the 
most noble and elevated with morality and reason, 
and ending with the lowest, with fear and impres- 
sions on the sense of feeling, and the sensations of 
hunger and thirst. We may reason with those 
who understand the laws of the Creator, and feel 
their importance, whilst others, who cannot com- 
prehend these laws or perceive their utility, should 
be restrained by inferior and selfish motives, even 
by disagreeable impressions on their senses, or by 
feeling the pains of hunger, or solitary confine- 
ment. The latter means will be rarely necessary, 



DIFFERENCE OP NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 185 

but if so, should not be neglected. The flogging 
system however, will be abandoned in proportion 
as human nature becomes understood, and educa- 
tion conducted according y . 



CHAPTER IV. 

EVERY ONE HAS HIS NATURAL GIFTS. 

The reader, somewhat versed in Phrenology, 
will easily perceive, that the different considera- 
tions of this work are in the most intimate connec- 
tion with, and even founded on, ideas developed 
in other publications to which I have frequently 
referred. In this Chapter I take it for granted, 
that all mental dispositions or powers, are innate, 
and I speak of them in so far only as regards the 
direction of their actions. 

In respect to feelings as well as intellect, man- 
kind may be ranged in different classes. There 
are persons who may be called fortunate, if not 
elect, namely, those who, from the felicity of their 
natural constitution, desire only what is good, 
who act from love, and show pure morality in all 
their actions. In these happy beings, the superior 
feelings predominate much over those common to 
man and animals. 
17* 



186 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The rest of mankind, by far the greater num- 
ber, are obliged to combat against the activity of 
the inferior feelings, and stand in need of the law 
to direct and restrain them. Three subdivisions 
of this latter class may be considered. The 
first embraces those who have one or several of the 
inferior as well as one or several of the superior 
feelings very active. These persons may be great 
in vice or virtue, according as they follow the 
dictates of their inferior or superior faculties. 

In the second order, may be reckoned those in 
whom certain inferior faculties are very active, 
and all the superior very weak. Such individ- 
uals are exposed to the danger of being over- 
whelmed by vice, in proportion to the weakness 
of the superior motives. This disproportion is 
common in great criminals* 

In the third class are placed by far the greater 
number of mankind, namely, those individuals in 
whom all the faculties are middling ; those who 
act according to education and external circum- 
stances, and follow, without examination, the 
moral and religious principles which they are 
taught. Some philosophers, founding on them as 
instances, have been led to maintain, that man 
does every thing by imitation. Though that 
opinion be erroneous, the influence of imitation, 
remains very great, and we may say with Mr. 
Combe, (Essays on Phrenology, p. 322.) " As a 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 187 

general rule, whatever you wish your child to be 
or do, be that or do that to him. If you wish 
him to be outrageous, to be cruel, to be quarrel- 
some, be outrageous, cruel, and quarrelsome to 
him. If you wish him to be humane and polite, 
be humane and polite to him. If you wish him to 
be just and pious, be just and devout before him." 
The great mass of mankind, indeed, cannot be 
left to their own guidance ; common people, when 
tempted, easily yield ; education, therefore, in all 
its details, legislation, and all public institutions, 
ought to contribute to accustom them to regulari- 
ty and order. But, at the same time, the rulers 
of mankind must not expect the lower minds to 
be obedient whilst they forget their own duty. 
Power is given, not for the selfish gratification 
of those who are invested with authority, but 
to promote the general happiness of the commu- 
nity. 

With respect to understanding, it is also ccr- 
that few are endowed with a mind so "compre- 
hensive, as to enable them to learn whatever they 
please, and to embrace the principles of universal 
knowledge. Some are given rather to deep re- 
flection than to great learning ; others have less 
reflection, but much talent for acquiring erudi- 
tion ; and, in the last place, the greater number 
do not excel in any department of knowledge, 
of art, or of science whatever ; but may learn any 



188 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

thing that is necessary to qualify them to become 
useful members of society. 

The preceding facts being ascertained by ob- 
servation, we may examine the question, Whether 
the same kind of education will equally suit every 
individual. 

The aim in educating all must be the same, 
namely, to render them virtuous and intelligent ; 
but as the natural endowment of individuals is 
different, all persons are not capable of the same 
improvement, and every one cannot be induced by 
the same motives to pursue the same end. 

The faculties proper to man, being the aim of 
all our actions, should be cultivated in every per- 
son as much as possible, but the natural differ- 
ence will be observed with respect to the energy 
of these, as well as of the other faculties in differ- 
ent individuals. Nature, by her endowment, con- 
stitutes some characters moral, and others religious. 
The latter will act more from faith, the former 
from duty. Yet, the law, " Love thy neighbor 
as thyself," must be constantly held up to both, 
as the object of their exertions, and obedience to 
it required, even of those who do not feel inclined 
to do so. 

If the superior motives be not sufficiently strong 
to produce this obedience, the lower faculties 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 189 

must be employed. The influence of the latter 
powers, then, is double ; they constitute motives 
themselves, and they also assist the superior feel- 
ings to arrive at their gratification. Among the 
lower motives, selfishness and fear are the most 
generally energetic, and no legislation can exclude 
the use of them. 

Thus, a true system of education cannot be 
founded on single views, or established accord- 
ing to single individuals ; it must be adapted to 
human nature. I have already mentioned that 
whoever will direct man, ought not to hold out 
only one motive of action. He who endeavors to 
change every person into a philosopher, and he 
who will never reason with any one is equally mis- 
taken. A preacher who invites others to become 
morally good, will err when he trusts entirely to 
the motives which govern his own actions, not 
being aware that sometimes such motives make 
no impression on others. He ought to bring for- 
ward all possible reasons to touch all his auditors, 
and make them feel those motives which they are 
susceptible of. He ought to be particularly care- 
ful to be understood, and to speak by examples. 
Moreover, his precepts must be confirmed by his 
own actions. He who teaches order and cleanli- 
ness, must be orderly and cleanly himself ; he who 
preaches peace and charity, must not deny these 
principles by his moral conduct. Those who 
gay, Follow my words, but not my actions, are 



190 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

unfit for their situation, and ought to be replaced 
by more worthy subjects. 

It follows, that the feelings, as well as and even 
still more than the intellectual faculties, ought to 
be considered before children are destined to cer- 
tain professions, or adults to certain places. To 
bring up a child endowed with great animal pro- 
pensities, such as.Amativeness, Combat iveness, Ac- 
quisitiveness, Self-esteem, &c. to the church, 
whatever his intellect may be, is the height of 
error and absurdity. Nothing has done greater 
harm to society, than placing individuals in pro- 
fessions and situations for which they were unfit, 
not only through the want of some necessary facul- 
ties, but also through the inordinate activity of 
some of the opposite ones. Strong amativeness or 
cruelty produces mischief in a Roman Catholic 
priest, as does the love of domination in the repre- 
sentative of a free nation, corruptibility in a judge, 
fear in a general, &c. The feelings, also, ought to 
be exercised with a view to the future destination 
of children. Combativeness is to the soldier what 
reverence is to the clergyman ; but, in both, benev- 
olence and conscientiousness should be active. 

It is also impossible to insist too much on the 
importance of considering the effect of the natural 
feelings, in the choice of persons to rule or to lead 
society. This highly interesting point can be per- 
ceived, in all its magnitude, by those only who 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 191 

are convinced, that the faculties which produce 
feelings, are natural gifts differing in every indi- 
vidual ; that they are independent of intellect, 
and are the principal cause of our actions. In this 
way, fishermen, who are eminently gifted in 
natural sentiments, may be better moralists than 
high priests, mathematicians, orators, or philoso- 
phers, who excel only in intellect, and whose moral 
sentiments are weak compared with their inferior 
propensities. 

An opposite error, but not less hurtful to society 
than the preceding, is committed by those who 
despise and neglect the cultivation of the intel- 
lectual faculties. Some religious persons of this 
kind, have endeavoured to put aside all temporal 
concerns, and have become hermits. Others avoid 
all pleasure, or even torture their body, in order 
to be agreeable to their Creator. Others repre- 
sent a knowledge of the Bible, as a substitute for 
all other information, in the same way as the Ma- 
hometan confines his knowledge to the Koran. 
Our ignorance of human nature is the cause of 
such mistakes. The faculties which produce feel- 
ings, constitute only one part of our nature ; the 
other part is intellectual, and the feelings work in 
darkness if not enlightened by the understanding. 

Intellectual education too, is frequently miscon- 
ducted from ignorance of human nature. The 
basis, however, of the direction of intellect is the 



192 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

same as that of feelings. A plurality of intel- 
lectual powers exists, and they are possessed in 
different degrees of strength by different indi- 
viduals. The reflective faculties are essential to 
our moral conduct in every situation ; and are 
necessary to form clear conceptions in all intel- 
lectual operations, while the perceptive faculties 
are applicable only to certain kinds of employ- 
ment. The reflective powers then should be ex- 
ercised in every individual. 

I have already repeated, that all our learning 
ought to be useful, and that we should obtain'pos- 
itive notions instead of mere signs, which convey 
no meaning. Indeed no one has excelled, nor 
will excel, as a deep thinker, as a great minister, 
general, lawyer, physician, or moralist, merely 
because he is a good classical scholar. Great men 
are no doubt frequently skilled in the classics ; 
and it would certainly be astonishing, if their 
natural capacities, which enabled them to become 
great, should prevent them from becoming good 
Latin scholars, since we see that they are obliged 
to spend more time and labor in learning Latin 
than in any other pursuit. But it should never 
be forgotten, that the talent for learning artificial 
signs is a primitive one, and that it may or may 
not be combined in any individual with a great 
endowment of other intellectual powers, and hence 
that it is wrong to consider it as the standard of 
understanding in general. It is high time, says 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 193 

Dr. Rush, (Essays Literary, Moral, and Philo- 
sophical. Phil. 1806,) to distinguish between a 
philosopher and a scholar, between things and 
words. We may be good scholars, and know 
nothing of man and things. A mere scholar can 
call a horse or a cow by different names, but he 
frequently knows nothing of the qualities and 
uses of these valuable anin.als. " A boy of eight 
years old, with the Latin grammar in his hand, 
asked his father who made the Latin language, 
and for what it was made ? Another boy, of 
eleven years of age, wished he had not been born, 
because of the trouble which he found in learning 
Latin." It is certain, as Dr. Rush also says, that 
many sprightly boys, of excellent capacities for 
useful knowledge, have been so disgusted with 
the dead languages, as to retreat from the drudg- 
ery of schools to low company, whereby they have 
become bad members of society. 

The exclusive study of the ancient languages 
has retarded the progress of the arts and sciences. 
Whoever takes an interest in their improvement 
must declare against it. Philology ought to be 
considered as a particular branch of instruction, in 
the same way as Chemistry, Botany, &c. Useful 
and practical knowledge ought to be the principal 
object of intellectual education. During the time 
we spend in learning the words in which Virgil 
delivers the erroneous opinion, that bees originate 
from putrefaction, we might learn, with greater 
18 



194 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

advantage, the natural history, treatment, and use- 
fulness of this insect itself. In countries where 
vines are planted, it is more useful to teach chil- 
dren how to cultivate them, and how to make 
wine, than the expression which HoRACEempl oys 
to inform us, that he liked a good glass of wine. 
Instead of learning Mythology in Latin and Greek, 
we had better make ourselves acquainted with the 
history of the different religious creeds, and of 
true Christianity by reading in our mother-tongue. 
Of what use is it to us to know what words the 
Greeks used when they spoke, since we never con- 
verse in Greek ? 

Intellectual education may be divided into Gen- 
eral and Professional ; and in both respects the 
pupils may be subdivided into several classes, not 
according to age and time, but according to the 
objects to be taught, and those to be learnt ; for, 
in point of fact, some children learn double what 
others do in a given time, and succeed better in 
one branch than in another. They should remain 
in each class as long as, and no longer than, is 
necessary to acquire sufficient knowledge of the 
branch there taught. There should be one pro- 
fessor for each branch > and each class should be 
conducted according to the plan of mutual in- 
struction. 

I have already laid it down as a fundamental 
rule, that no sign should be employed without its 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 195 

meaning is explained, and that children should be 
constantly admonished, that they use artificial 
signs as means of communication or recollection, 
and that sensations, feelings, notions and reflec- 
tions, precede, and can be acquired only by, the 
activity of the faculties themselves. 

I reckon the knowledge of as many objects and 
beings as possible, viz. of the three kingdoms of 
natural history, of their physical and chemical 
qualities, of the vital phenomena, of history, geo- 
graphy, geology, and cosmography, of anthropo- 
logy, the mother tongue, printed and written 
signs, calculation, and, finally, moral and religious 
principles, to be essential to a general intellectual 
education. 

Elementary ideas, or outlines of these objects, are 
sufficient for children ; but during the college ed- 
ucation, these branches are to be extended and de- 
tailed, but always taught by the way of mutual 
instruction. 

It is a common complaint that arts and sciences 
do not improve as much as might be wished for. 
This proves at least that education does not pro- 
duce talents ; but I think, on the other hand, that 
Nature has given many capacities which education 
suppresses. If, for instance, a boy who has little 
talent for learning Latin, but great inclination to 
draw, will, whenever the master turns his eyes 



196 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

away, exercise his natural bias, he will, when per- 
ceived, at least be scolded. The consequence will 
be, that at the end he will know but very little 
Latin, while his innate talent of drawing has been 
prevented from being exercised. In this way 
many children are punished for cultivating their 
natural gifts, and their intellectual education is 
impeded. How different would every one be, 
were he brought up according to his natural en- 
dowments. It is really the greatest misfortune 
for mankind to educate children and youth in an 
indiscriminate manner ; and we may say, that in 
consequence of absurd views in the selection of 
the objects taught, and in the manner of teaching, 
learning has hitherto been tiresome, unprofitable, 
and even disgusting in no ordinary degree. 

The mistakes committed are particularly great 
in professional education. It is a lamentable truth, 
that few persons stand in the situations for which 
nature particularly fitted them. This soldier 
ought to have been a clergyman ; that clergyman 
a soldier ; and here we see a shoemaker who was 
intended for a poet ; and there an advocate who 
was designed for a shoemaker. The first indica- 
tion of improvement in this respect will appear, 
when human nature shall be better understood ; 
it will be known that there are natural gifts, that 
these gifts are different ; that precepts and rules 
neither bring forth talents nor moral conduct ; that 
none should be promoted to the degree of a lead- 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 197 

ing man, who is not fit for the station, and that 
he who is fit for one place is not on that account 
necessarily fit for all others. It is a great evil if 
education be very expensive, so that merely rich 
persons can receive it. Their children are not al- 
ways the most talented, whilst the geniuses among 
the poorer classes are excluded. In this respect 
the Roman hierarchy serves as a model. It was 
conceived in a true republican spirit, and no civil 
government has hitherto shown a succession of tal- 
ents at the head of affairs, to be compared with 
the church of Rome. 

There is another example on record, which 
proves the importance of choosing the talents 
among all classes and employing every one ac- 
cording to his talents. The society of the Jesuits 
rose in a short time to an extraordinary height 
and influence. Several causes contributed to this 
result ; but the principal one certainly was; that 
they were employed in conducting education, dis- 
tinguished the genius of their pupils, chose for 
their order only those who excelled in talents, and 
employed each individual according to his natural 
dispositions. No society will acquire an equal in- 
fluence that expects to do so from teaching alone. 

Moreover, their regulations were calculated to 
contribute to their excellence. They were under 
a leading general, who nominated without con- 
trol all functionaries of the order, and could re- 

18* 



198 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

move them at pleasure. To him the reports of 
the subordinate societies were submitted. These 
reports were minute and circumstantial in the 
highest degree, containing exact information of 
the characters of the novices, and professed mem- 
bers, their talents, dispositions, and prevailing 
tendencies, and, above all, their knowledge of hu- 
man nature, and experience in affairs. Thus, the 
general could appoint to each man his station and 
his reward, could elevate and degrade, exclude 
and retain, and allot the chief duties to the highest 
abilities. 

1 am far from defending the church of Rome 
and the society of Jesuits in all their tendencies. 
I argue only in favor of their sagacity, in furnish- 
ing means of education to the better heads of all 
classes and in employing every member according 
to his abilities. 

If every' one were employed according to his 
natural gifts, a double advantage would re- 
sult : arts and sciences would be cultivated with 
more success, and many persons would be better 
pleased with their station in life. It is certain, 
that it is not always the profession to which we 
are forced by circumstances, that makes us happy. 
Many would be satisfied with a smaller income, 
if they were allowed to follow their natural bias. 
Even people of independent fortune are still de- 
pendent on the general arrangement of education. 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 199 

They know perfectly well that one or another of 
their sons will never excel as classical scholars, 
but they must submit to custom, and prejudice : 
the boys must be drilled for years, though they 
will soon forget that which they learned by com- 
pulsion. This is school-wisdom ! 

The second error of professional education is, 
that we are plagued with a great deal of useless 
knowledge, while the most important objects are 
overlooked. Of what use is mathematics to a 
clergyman, while his attention is scarcely called 
to human nature, and to the organic conditions on 
which the manifestations of the mind depend ? 
None of the unprofitable studies ought to be com- 
pulsory. Yet as every kind of knowledge is use- 
ful, no branch of it should be neglected, and 
therefore Latin and Greek might with pro- 
priety, continue to be taught, if we make it requi- 
site for those onlv to learn them who have the 
inclination to do so, or whose professions require 
such knowledge. No one can learn every thing, 
and it is wrong to oblige pupils to learn that 
which is useless in their practical situation in 
life. 

The third error of professional as well as of 
general education, consists in the method of teach- 
ing. It has been examined in the preceding pages, 
and I mention it once more for the sake of connec- 
tion. Children learn languages without ideas, 



200 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

and natural history by mere descriptions ; and 
those who teach them in this manner, if they think 
at all about the matter, must proceed on the belief 
that every word communicated necessarily excites, 
in the mind of the pupil, the idea which they 
mean it to convey. This, however, is an extrava- 
gant error ; for words can excite only ideas already 
acquired, and if no previous ideas have been form- 
ed, they are mere unmeaning sounds. The same 
error is committed in professional education. In 
the study of medicine, for instance, we are fre- 
quently told a great deal about various diseases ; 
of external appearances ; of different conditions of 
the pulse or skin, &c. before we observe such 
things in nature. The result is, that the time and 
labor we spend in acquiring such theoretical know- 
ledge are, in a great measure, lost. Let us first 
see Nature, and then hear descriptions. A medical 
student, who has never seen a patient, but studied 
the theory of diseases, will be as little acquainted 
with them as with minerals of which he has only 
read the descriptions, though he might excel in 
his theoretical examinations. 

Thus, in the study of medicine, it is not only 
wrong to compel the students, as is the case|at cer- 
tain universities, to learn the auxiliary sciences in 
detail, such as mineralogy, botany, zoology and 
chemistry, since a perfect and practical know- 
ledge of each of these branches would require sev- 
eral years ; but it is also a great error to begin 
with theoretical lectures. 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 201 

Moreover, the individual brandies of medical 
education are too much separated. The instruc- 
tion begins commonly with anatomy, without the 
pupil being taught to think of the use of any par- 
ticular part. At certain universities, they spend 
the greater part of the time in studying osteology 
and myology, (the knowledge of the bones and 
muscles ;) they must learn the name of each bony 
ridge and edge ; but may hurry over, with very 
superficial notions of the viscera and nerves, which 
certainly are more important to medical practi- 
tioners in general than those of the bones ; whilst 
operative surgeons alone stand in need of a very 
exact knowledge of the bones and blood-vessels. 

Physiology and anatomy ought never to be 
separated from each other : the structure will be 
learned with more ease and pleasure when at the 
same time its uses are taught. On the other hand, 
students ought to begin with the more necessary 
functions, and go on to those of less importance. 
When well acquainted with anatomy and physiol- 
ogy, they ought to see patients, and the different 
morbid symptoms ; they should learn to distin- 
guish diseases, to become attentive to modifica- 
tions according to age, temperament, climate, 
season, and manner of living, and to learn the 
mode of treatment. Being instructed in this prac- 
tical way, they will feel an interest in studying 
the Materia Medica, or the substances used out of 
the three kingdoms of nature, and also the chem- 



202 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ical preparations and doses. This study will hot 
require great extension, if we attend more to the 
art of healing than to the display of knowledge. 
The most skillful practitioners use a small num- 
ber of drugs in curing their patients, and they use 
still less for themselves, being indisposed. 

When human nature shall be better understood, 
and the primitive faculties of the mind, and the 
conditions of their manifestations more perfectly 
known, professional education will be better 
regulated, and we shall then no longer be obliged 
to learn merely for the school, or, as we com- 
monly say, for the examinations. We shall then 
acquire only practical knowledge, and no one will 
find it necessary to begin his own plan of useful 
learning when he has finished his studies at the 
university. Indeed, nothing can be more tedious 
for students, than to attend ex officio lectures of 
mere theoretical schoolmen. 

Here the qualifications of teachers might be con- 
sidered with propriety ; they are certainly of great 
importance, but it is not my intention to speak of 
them. Pupils are well aware, that great abuses 
are committed in this respect ; that it is not 
always the most worthy who fills the chair. 1 
merely notice, that there is a difference between 
the possessing of knowledge and the capacity of 
communicating it to others, and that some persons 
of more knowledge are sometimes less skilful in 



DIFFERENCE OF NATURAL ENDOWMENT. 203 

teaching, than others of less information, in the 
same way as the best students of theoretical know- 
ledge have not always the most practical skill. 

• The common method of teaching arts is not bet- 
ter than that of cultivating sciences. Let us sup- 
pose, for the sake of example, that those only who 
have natural talents apply themselves to drawing, 
painting, and the arts of imitation, — but we may 
ask, how are they generally taught ? They are too 
frequently confined to copying the antiques as the 
only models of beauty and perfection, instead of 
representing and imitating nature. In this way ar- 
tists will be only copyists, and never can acquire 
any claim to originality. On the other hand, the 
ancients had no exclusive privilege of genius, nor 
did they necessarily exhaust all the sources of excel- 
lence, so as to leave to posterity no resource but 
to copy them. On the contrary, there are many 
antiques that have no merit but their age. The 
only criterion, then, of greater or less perfection 
in works of art, is their resemblance to nature. 
Now, if the ancients have brought forth master- 
pieces in imitating nature, why should not modern 
artists do the same, since nature, though infinite 
in her modifications, is constant in her laws ? Let 
us imitate the method of the ancient artists, but 
not copy their productions. They represented 
nature, and imitated her varieties ; they gave to 
each strong hero, strong muscles, yet different in 
proportion and size, just as we find in nature ; 



JC04 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

why should our artists copy only the statue of 
Hercules, in order to indicate bodily strength ? 
Why should they in general confine themselves 
only to one and the same configuration and atti- 
tude for particular personages ? All musicians 
might be equally, and, with the same right, re- 
quested to follow only the productions of one or 
several great composers ; and all music which is 
not like that of Handel, Mozart or Haydn, be 
declared to be good for nothing. 

Even on the supposition that education, in all 
its details, is well understood, and its principles 
practised, still there will be but a few individuals, 
who will unite all the faculties necessary to such 
or such a situation. The individual painters will 
be rare, who possess in a high degree the faculties 
of Constructiveness, Configuration, Size, Color- 
ing, Imitation, Individuality, Comparison, and 
Causality. The same difficulty of uniting the 
necessary fundamental faculties together prevails 
in all arts, sciences and professions. In every one 
there are and will be individuals endowed with 
one or several of the necessary gifts ; but it sel- 
dom happens that all the faculties are united in an 
eminent degree in one person. The combinations 
of the primitive powers are innumerable, and 
form the proper subject of a particular treatise on 
talents and characters. 



EDUCATION OP THE SEXES. 205 

The reader will keep in mind, that in this vol- 
ume, I intend merely to expose the fundamental 
principles according to which education is to be 
regulated, and the human race perfected. The 
peculiar applications are without end. The two 
following chapters, however, one on the education 
of both sexes, and the other on that of nations, 
seem to me particularly interesting. Yet there 
too the general principles remain the same, but 
their application is to be modified, and adapted 
to the peculiarities of sexes and nations. 




CHAPTER V. 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 



The question, whether both sexes are to be ed- 
ucated differently, or in the sane manner, and 
placed in different or in the same situations in 
practical life, has been, and is still differently an- 
swered. Women call men usurpers and tyrants ; 
and they, on the contrary, boast of natural and 
positive rights of superiority. I shall consider, 
in the first place, in a general way, the condition 
of women as it was, and as it is, and then exa- 
mine what natural claims they have to equality. 
Their education is to be regulate! according to 
the determination of the latter poi; t. 
19 



206 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

The condition of women is very miserable 
among barbarous nations ; they are slaves. Wher- 
ever bodily strength and animal feelings predom- 
inate, they are sadly off. They are purchased, 
and divorce is permitted. The Jews were privi- 
leged to divorce their wives. (Deut. xxiv.) 

Among civilized nations, as long as the code of 
morality is dictated by the lower feelings, females 
are looked on as means of gratifying the selfish 
passions of men. The ancient Greeks and the 
European nations, during the dark ages, treated 
them with every indignity. Polygamy is inti- 
mately connected with the custom of purchasing 
wives. It prevailed originally every where, and 
exists still in many countries. In China, the 
wives are sold at marriages, and not permitted to 
make any choice of their own. By polygamy, 
however, some men usurp the right of others, a 
custom which is contrary to nature, since more 
boys are born than girls ; or are we authorized to 
admit that the contrary happens in Asia ? The 
pure spirit of Christianity abolished this odious 
practice, and re-established the primitive law of 
the Creator. 

The female sex has risen by a slow progress to 
higher and higher degrees of estimation in Europe. 
Females are respected wherever moral feelings 
are esteemed. Where this is the case, they are 
valued as friends ; but still they are either con- 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 207 

sidered as weak and delicate creatures, and as- 
sisted, since it is thought a duty to compassionate 
and to succor the feeble, or they are treated as 
simple and useful housewives. 

Where a taste for beautiful forms and elegance 
of manners prevails, the females are considered 
as agreeable companions, and often become mis- 
tresses. 

Women are best treated, when polite manners 
and moral feelings are cultivated. Then they 
live with men under the decent form of matrimo- 
ny. Their gentle and insinuating manners are 
highly appreciated, and they are considered as 
intimate and faithful friends. 

Yet there is no society where the two sexes 
stand altogether in an equal situation. Is this dif- 
ference founded on nature, or the result of the 
selfishness of men ? Women speak of vindicating 
their natural rights ; they call it tyranny to deny 
them a share in civil and political affairs, to force 
them to remain immured in their families, &c. 
Mary Wolstoncroft has taken great pains to 
show, that both sexes are by nature equal. She 
was obliged to admit the actual inferiority of her 
sex ; but still she endeavored to prove, that 
women are degraded only by want of education, 
and by external circumstances ; and that men, 
through jealousy, purposely neglect the cultivation 



208 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

of girls. Male writers, on the contrary, maintain, 
that nature has made the two sexes different, 
though concordant, so as to produce together a 
delicious harmony ; that she has prepared them 
for their future destinations, by a particular mod- 
ification of feelings and intellectual faculties given 
to each, and avoided rivalship between them, by 
giving them different dispositions. 

It is to be understood, that I do not speak of 
single individuals. There are women who re- 
semble men, and vice versa. Mary Wolston- 
croft speaks of her own manner of feeling and 
thinking, which resembled that of a man. She 
contends particularly for the power of generaliz- 
ing ideas, of drawing comprehensive conclusions 
from individual observations, a power which 
seems to her the only requisite of an immortal 
being ; a power which is commonly denied to 
women, and often considered as inconsistent with 
the female character. I allow that this power 
exists in some women stronger than in many men ; 
but Mary Wolstoncroft would accuse herself, 
and speak against her sex, if she would draw gen- 
eral inferences from her own individual feelings. 
As I am of the decided opinion, that the two sexes, 
in the actual state of things, are naturally differ- 
ent in their dispositions, I shall contrast them in 
a summary view. They possess essentially the 
same powers of mind, the whole difference con- 
sists in the degrees in which they have them. 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 209 

The form of the female body is rounded, and 
indicates rather delicacy and beauty than strength 
and solidity. " Let us be allowed," says Mary 
Wolstoncroft, " to take the same exercise as 
boys, not only during infancy, but also during 
youth, and we shall arrive at the same perfection 
of body." I admit, that in girls, confined to 
close rooms, and prohibited from taking sufficient 
exercise, the muscles are relaxed, and the diges- 
tive powers destroyed. It would certainly be ad- 
visable to take the greatest care of the bodily 
constitution, and to adopt a manner of living 
which would secure females against bodily defor- 
mities and the immense train of nervous com- 
plaints that afflict them under the present system. 
I pity the female sex for their physical education 
being so utterly neglected, and for their mental 
improvement being thoroughly mismanaged ; yet 
I am also fully convinced, that although the same 
physical education were given to the muscular 
system of both sexes, each would preserve its pe- 
culiarities, because the functions, those at least 
which characterize the sex, are different in each. 
Country people of Europe furnish a certain proof 
of the truth of this assertion, boys and girls are 
brought up in the same way, but it is superfluous 
to say which sex is the strongest, and which has 
recourse to the other when muscular strength is 
required. Women are exposed to many little dis- 
orders unknown to the male sex. Farther in ful- 
filling their duty as mothers, they are exposed to 
19* 



210 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

great sufferings, and causes of weakness. Man- 
kind is treated in this, as in many other respects, 
like all viviparous animals. Though the manner 
of living be the same in both sexes, the females 
are smaller and weaker than the males. 

Some of the feelings necessary to the preserva- 
tion of the species are stronger in men, and others 
of them stronger in women. In animals, the male 
pursues, the female yields, and so it is in mankind. 
Among all nations men court, and women are 
courted. As to the love of offspring, the two 
sexes show a decided difference. Female children 
delight to dress and undress a baby, to take every 
possible care of a doll, to get an infant in their 
arms, to carry it, to sing and to walk about, stag- 
gering under the weight. Boys seldom think of 
such a pastime. They have more inclination to 
noisy amusements, to run about, to ride upon a 
stick by way of a horse ; they delight in a top, a 
ball, a drum, <^c. Since the suckling mother 
must stay with the child, and provide for its 
wants, nature has taken care that she should be 
pleased with doing so. Indeed many mothers 
have this feeling too strong, they cannot manage 
their children properly ; they spoil them, become 
unjust towards other persons on their account, 
and sacrifice truth and every thing for their sake. 
This is seldom the case with fathers ; they are 
commonly obliged to inflict the deserved punish- 
ments, and to be the judges in all disputes. 



EDUCATION OP THE SEXES. 2\\ 

Mary Wolstoncroft denies that women from 
birth, independently of education, have a fond- 
ness for dolls. She quotes her own feelings, and 
ventures to affirm, that the doll will never excite 
the attention of a girl, unless confinement allows 
her no alternative. "Girls and hoys," says she 
"would play harmlessly together, if the distinc- 
tion of sex were not inculcated long before nature 
makes any difference." Mary Wolstoncroft is 
very wrong to take herself as the standard of her 
sex, while general ohservations show, that through- 
out nature the love of offspring is stronger in fe- 
males than in males. 

Another feeling more energetic in women than 
in men, is Attachment. This feeling is not the 
result of their weak state, hut is given hy nature. 
Many women have sacrificed to it their happiness 
and welfare. Females commonly wish to possess, 
exclusively, the friendship of others, and often 
complain of the want of friendship in men, since 
they are not so exclusively governed hy it. The 
circumstance of this feeling being so energetic and 
prevailing in women, is an additional motive why 
seduction should he more severely punished. I 
fear that many legislators wink at this crime, from 
the circumstance of their not being themselves so 
prone to strong attachments as women. 

There are still some other feelings more active 
in women than in men, which essentially enter 



212 EDUCATION OP MAN. 

into the formation of the female character. It is, 
however, difficult to say whether they contribute 
to their happiness, since it often happens, that, 
if they be not satisfied, they become sources of 
unhappiness to them. I allude to Ideality and 
Approbativeness. 

One of the most prevailing sentiments of females 
is the Love of Approbation. They show it from 
their earliest infancy in dressing, walking, speak- 
ing, &c. &c. They are constantly desirous of 
knowing what others say of them ; they are fond 
of distinctions of every kind, of decorations and 
external show. Young girls, who are scarcely 
capable of understanding what is said of them, 
may be governed by talking to them of what 
other people think of their behaviour. This 
motive has not the same effect with boys. 
Many females are intoxicated by the love of ap- 
probation, they cannot distinguish true merit from 
false flattery, nay, they would be pleased with 
adoration. They try to make impressions on 
others by various means. Some would suffer pain 
in order to be pitied, rather than remain unno- 
ticed. 

No man will object indiscriminately against the 
feeling which causes a desire of pleasing ; it is the 
source of many pleasures in society ; but its too 
great activity, combined with some other senti- 
ments, and not directed by reflection, makes many 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 213 

women weak and fastidious, or mere objects of 
amusement, by their pretty nothings and infantine 
airs. It is still worse, if such fine ladies be full of 
capricious fancies. Females who are governed 
only by this feeling, will remain alluring objects 
for a moment, but they will not obtain a durable 
interest in the affections of a sensible man. It fol- 
lows, that the sentiment of the love of approba- 
tion being in general too strong in women, does not 
stand in need of being exercised ; it is, indeed, 
their greatest enemy. Farther they delight fre- 
quently in a world of fiction and eccentricity. 
The softer feelings and the religious sentiments are 
commonly stronger in women than in men. Fe- 
males therefore become easily the favorite tools 
of priesthood. 

Females naturally have less courage and destruc- 
tiveness than men, and more Cautiousness. Fear, 
therefore, ought not to be cherished in them ; but 
it ought to be treated as cowardice. To fear a 
cat, a mouse, an insect, a little noise, &c. is irra- 
tional, looks infantine, and indicates altogether a 
false susceptibility of mind, or a too great nervous 
irritability. The ardor with which some females 
amuse themselves in hunting, shooting, and 
gaming, appears, on the other hand, equally ob- 
jectionable. In short, while coarseness in females 
is to be avoided ; delicacy and refinement of taste 
must not be confounded with weakness. 



214 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

The conduct of females in general is unstable ; 
their opinions are often wavering ; they think too 
much of incidental occurrences ; of actual events ; 
they wish to enjoy immediately ; are moved by 
momentary impressions ; do not like to work for 
a future period ; while men have more frequently 
the end in view. Females undertake many things ; 
they are warm by fits and starts, but their warmth 
is soon exhausted. 

Indeed, hitherto the greatest enemies of the fe- 
male sex reside in their own feelings. Many civ- 
ilized women please, rather than inspire with re- 
spect. They prefer alluring manners to perma- 
nent friendship. Many are charming, romantic, 
vain, or fine sentimental ladies. They are occu- 
pied with trifling things, mere beings of sensibility 
and pleasure, refined by novels, poetry, and gal- 
lantry ; but they should never forget, that they 
will always be considered as insignificant when 
they wish only to be fine ladies, and not to fulfil 
the duties which nature has assigned to them. 

Thus, the feelings and their combinations in 
women, tend much to make them dependent. To 
be independent, it is not sufficient to be endowed 
with the feeling of duty and justice as the principal 
motive ; these must also be combined with indif- 
ference about the opinion of others when unjust, 
with courage and perseverance, in order to resist 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 2 15 

difficulties and obstacles, and to attend only to the 
aim, and to think of the necessary 



means. 



In order to understand perfectly the <r rea t 
phenomenon observed at all times, that one°half 
ot the human species has excluded the other half 
Irom all participation in government, it is neces- 
sary to compare also the understanding of the two 



The intellectual faculties, though, like the feel- 
ings essentially the same in both sexes, are wide- 
ly different in power in the two, and in the 
actual state of things men undoubtedly enjov the 
superiority. I by no means say, that women are 
made to be the toys of men, much less their slaves • 
and I wish that their understanding may be more' 
cultivated than it usually is , not b Latin and 
Greek, but by useful knowledge. Let their whole 
character be prepared for the important duties in 
their future stations aswife and as mother. Whoever 
will attend to female education, will find that thev 
acquire many notions of individual things ; that 
they excel in the recitation of anecdotes and de- 
scriptions of manners, in the epistolary style ; that 
they are admirable in details, but dwell on effects, 
without tracing them back to their causes. In 
arts and sciences females rarely show themselves 
masters they most commonly remain apprentices. 
Ihose female authors who defend their sex, main- 
tain that their education is neglected, and that on 



M education orx 

this account alone they are inferior, for they are 
all obliged to admit the actual infe :he 

fair sex. lei there can be no doubt thai u 
| -Is than boys learn music, drav _ wad paint- 
ins, and that many fen these a 
dus Why then, we may ask, do their com- 
positions so rarely equal those of men en- 
ever great combinations, deep reflection, discrim- 
ination, and general abstraction are requir, 
when principles and laws are to be establish. 
females in general remain behind. A shawl or a 
ribbon will soon absorb their minds, and make 
ihem easily neglect any philosophical d n. 

Thus, there is a natural difference between the 
tw . not in the number, but in the degrees 

cf the primiliTe powers of the mind. Some are 
strongei in women, others stronger in men, and 
both at em to ined to different occu- 

pations in society. Indeed no education will 
change the nature of the innate dispositions. Lt 
each sex, and each individual, be cultivated 
employed in those things for which he is fit. 
The claim to justice and merit" is equal in man 
and woman ; their duties only are different. Fe- 
males are not destined in ai umstances to be 
slaves, or mere patient drudges, nor are their d 
ties limited to chose of chaste wives and good man- 
agers of their families only ; women are required 
also to direct the education of their children, and 
to be agreeable and intelligent companions to their 



HE SEXES. 8H 

lru iheir understanding be -ted 

by useful kn study of | - om 

mind, and the print i,and of their 

fames in the direction of their families ; le 

►e imp: je study of L. and 

of art et G learn only 

objects of second ;x)rtarj' complish- 

merit- : and I vrhen they arrive at the ag l 

being united to a husbanc lorn capa- 

ble of supporting permanent friendship, by the 
eleva: r minds, and the steady practice 

of the domestic virtues. Many do not know how 
to guide I -.111 less their offspr! 

their ■ affairs. Indeed, if 

the fair sex zo on as ive done hitherto, ther 

cannot repine that they have no share in political 
concerns. If their minds do not take a more seri- 
ous and mo: ern in 
drawing-rooms, delicate feelings and pc! 
manners are attended to. but th I have no 
permanent influence on the laws of socie 

I beg leave, however, to repeat, that I admit 
individual exceptions, and speak only of the sex 
in general. I even think, that legislators are 
wrong to take it for granted, that the intellect of 
men is, in every case, superior to that of women. 
Some females contribute more than their husbands 
to the fortune of the family : fa it then not unjust 
to permit the husband to spend what the wife has 
gained, and to deprive her of power, when, in 
20 



218 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

point of fact, she might manage affairs to the ad- 
vantage of her family and of herself ? 

I would not like to be misunderstood and cer- 
tainly not to be thought hostile to the fair sex. I 
most sincerely wish their advancement in every 
respect. In my opinion there should be a greater 
number of better wives, if there were a greater 
number of better husbands. But I think of women 
what I say of nations. If they want a Saviour 
from without, they are not yet lit for emancipation. 
Let them do the work necessary to this change, 
and they will no longer complain of inferiority. 
Let the girls cultivate their intellect by practical 
knowledge. Let them aim at solidity as well as 
polite and refined manners, and not at prudery. 
This latter cannot be an indication neither of sense 
nor of taste. Society where both sexes meet to- 
gether in social intercourse, is most conducive to 
mutual improvement, to delicacy of sentiment and 
language. Why do gentlemen exclude ladies from 
their society when they meet to speak of scientific 
objects ? Ladies of former days probably have 
shown less taste for such conversations. Or is it 
the fault of the gentlemen ? In that case let our 
females direct the attention of men to science and 
arts, let them prove that they have the same de- 
sire of knowledge as their pretended Lords, and 
are not occupied merely with finery, ornamental 
dress, and showy appearances. Let them emanci- 
pate themselves. But as long as they can read 



EDUCATION OF THE SEXES. 219 

the Old Testament from one end to another, and 
can listen to sermons where expressions are used, 
which no delicate person would pronounce in po- 
lite society of gentlemen, whilst they think it in- 
delicate to speak at table of the leg of a fowl, I 
cannot help thinking, that there is some want of 
reflection either in the gentlemen who introduces 
such customs, or in the ladies who submit to them, 
or in both. I know the power of custom, but if 
the fair sex cannot overcome such fashionable but 
nonsensical trifles, how can they imagine to be able 
to legislate for society at large ? I am sorry to say, 
but, indeed I cannot perceive any arrangement of 
nature that can lead me to expect that women in 
general will cease soon to be considered as subordi- 
nate to men in the higher intellectual capacities. 
Their feelings obscure easily their understanding ; 
this is evident in their religious manifestations. In 
social life they seize quickly the useful and prac- 
tical part of things, but they seldom take general 
and comprehensive views. Yet let the many grat- 
ify their ambition ; let them endeavor, if they 
please, to acquire the same degree of talent, ener- 
gy? penetration and perseverance which we see in 
many men ; but, till they have acquired it, let 
them cherish order, and exercise the virtues of 
their actual condition in society rather than to 
present themselves in a sphere for which they, 
generally speaking, are not fitted, 



220 EDUCATION OF MAN. 



CHAPTER VI. 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 



The first idea that presents itself in this Chapter, 
is to inquire who, according to the laws of the 
Creator, is intrusted with national education, 
this being taken in the most extensive signification 
of the word. In treating of the education of chii- 
dren, I took it for granted, that parents are their 
natural protectors and leaders, and that they ought 
to consider it their duty, to favor the happiness of 
their progeny. On the other hand, parents, being 
free agents, are to be declared answerable for their 
influence on their offspring. 

Nations and governments are often compared, 
the former with children, and the latter with pa- 
rents. The analogy, however, is very inaccurate, 
nations never owing their existence to their gover- 
nors. This comparison is further objectionable, 
since nations always provide for the living of their 
rulers. It seems therefore more reasonable to 
think, that individuals unite under determinate 
conditions for the sake of the common good ; and 
submit, on that account, to an appointed leader or 
director. But who could fancy that this submis- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 221 

sion can be agreed to at the expense of the general 
welfare ? — The sovereignty of nations seems evi- 
dently to be a law of the Creator, and will be 
acknowledged in proportion as men become intel- 
ligent and virtuous. 

Yet, let us suppose what governors like to per- 
suade mankind : that they exist by the grace of 
God, viz. allowing this to be in the same way as 
every arrangement is made, and every kind of 
order is established by the will of the Creator ; 
but let us add the question, whether God, the Fa- 
ther of all, according to reason and Christianity, 
could establish civil and religious governments 
for the sake of any absolute power and private 
pleasure, independent of general happiness ? — Rea- 
son says, that wherever there is a community, its 
aim can be the public good alone. This principle 
prevails as regards families, tribes, nations and 
mankind at large. Christianity teaches the same 
doctrine. Jesus Christ, instead of assigning 
privileges to his disciples, abolished all personal 
supremacy and prerogatives. " Ye know," said 
he, " that the princes of the Gentiles exercise do- 
minion over them, and they that are great exercise 
authority upon them ; — But it shall not be so 
among you, but whosoever will be great among 
you, let him be your minister, and whosoever 
will be chief among you, let him be your servant." 
(Matt, xx.) " The disciples had disputed among 
themselves who should be the greatest ; and he 
20* 



222 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

sat down, and called the twelve, and said unto 
them, If any man desire to be the first, the same 
shall be the last of all and servant of all." (Mark 
ix.) He ordered them to be peaceable, humble, 
charitable, and satisfied with their daily bread. 
The following text, " Render unto Caesar L the 
things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things 
that are God's," (Matt, xxii.) commonly quoted 
to prove that Christianity is not against absolute 
rulers, bears, in my opinion, a more sound inter- 
pretation than is commonly given to it. Christ 
imposed upon his followers a new code of moral- 
ity, which was the will of his heavenly Father, 
and incumbent on all his disciples, Jews and Gen- 
tiles : one of its great commandments, applicable 
to all members, is to love our neighbor as our- 
selves. Now, I doubt, whether common sense 
can allow privileges compatible with such a doc- 
trine ? If we maintain that Jesus Christ sanc- 
tioned absolute power, because he did not inter- 
fere with it ; it may be said, with equal propriety, 
that he sanctioned every state of things, he did 
not mention. Is it not a natural consequence of 
his doctrine, that those who follow it, change 
their former manner of living, and abandon the 
abuses of preceding ages ? at all events, even those 
who consider God as the true legislator, and them- 
selves as the directors appointed by his special 
grace, must acknowledge that the aim of Chris- 
tianity is the general happiness of mankind, and 
that all notions opposed to that cause, must be 
abandoned. 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 22B 

The reader, then, may easily suppose, that I do 
not intend to examine the means favorable to gov- 
ernments, in order to dispose nations to be satis- 
fied with the good pleasure of their rulers, to 
keep them in ignorance and poverty, to force them 
to passive obedience, and employ them to mere 
selfish purposes, in short, to enslave them ; on the 
contrary, my object is evidently to speak of the 
means which may enable governments to fulfil the 
only reasonable and moral destination of their ex- 
istence. I take it for granted, that general wel- 
fare is the object of national education, and go at 
once to the inquiry how this is to be obtained. 

In national education as in that of individuals y 
the same principles prevail. Those who wish to 
contribute to this great work must always remem- 
ber, first, that they cannot create, but are confined 
to the laws of the Creator ; hence, that they can 
produce certain effects only under conditions ; 
secondly, that the faculties of the mind are innate, 
and that their manifestations depend on the 
cerebral organization ; thirdly, that the special 
faculties of the mind are essentially the same, 
but more or less active in different nations ; 
fourthly, that man acts from feelings rather than 
from intellect ; and finally, that the feelings in 
themselves are blind, and that their actions must 
be regulated by reason. Convinced of these prin- 
ciples, they may endeavor to increase or diminish 
the activity of the individual powers, and direct 
them towards the aim of society. 



224 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

With respect to the general preliminary princi- 
ples of national as well as individual education, I 
refer to my other publications, where these points 
are examined with details ; even in treating of the 
means necessary to obtain the desired effect of na- 
tional education I may be short, since they are 
the same as those explained in the preceding: 
chapters. 

Among the means of improvement, propagation 
occupies the first place, and crossing the breed is 
the surest wav of changing races. Foreign inva- 
ders, who intermarried with the old inhabitants, 
have greatly contributed to change the character 
of different nations ; and new settlers who mix 
with the natives will be of greater effect than all 
sorts of other regulations. The northern provinces 
of Ireland are inhabited by Scotch, and by a mix- 
ed race of Scotch and the primitive inhabitants; 
their character is known to be different from that 
of the Leinster people, and their cerebral organi- 
zation is not less so. Tribes, by attending to the 
laws of hereditary descent during several genera- 
tions, might be modified with greater certainty 
than by theoretical instruction in reading and 
writing, by hearing sermons and repeating prayers. 
Granted that governments have no right to force 
nations, except in conformity with the established 
laws ; they may, however, if they really mind the 
welfare of the people, inculcate the natural laws 
of hereditary descent, and find various ways to 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 225 

favor their practice. Careless tribes ought to in- 
termarry with cautious persons ; fearful with 
courageous ; gloomy with gay, &c. Natural mo- 
rality and Christianity command nations to live 
in peace, and by crossing their blood, their facul- 
ties of body and mind may be strengthened and 
improved. The principle, Make the tree good 
and it will bring forth good fruit, is undeniable. 

Thus, the knowledge of the laws of hereditary 
descent being the first and surest means of im- 
proving nations, deserves the attention of legisla- 
tors and governors : it embraces the conditions of 
innate strength of body and mind ; the causes of 
degeneration ; the propagation of hereditary dis- 
eases ; the number of inhabitants, or population ; 
and the regulation of marriages. A militarv gov- 
ernment, that institutes the conscription, such as 
it existed in France under the reign of Buonaparte, 
— that carries on war for several generations, and 
distributes all the honors only to soldiers, — is the 
greatest curse to a nation. Degeneration will be 
unavoidable, since all the better heads are sacri- 
ficed and the inferior allowed to propagate. On 
the other hand, when all inferior moral and intel- 
lectual organizations are employed as soldiers, 
and prohibited from marrying, the military line 
may be very useful to society. Hence, if stand- 
ing armies be necessary, take up in preference 
those* "who enlist from laziness and disorderly 
habits, and who are under the influence of the 
lower propensities. 



22G EDUCATION OF MAN. 

I think it necessary to add, that it is by no means 
my intention to degrade the military profession ; I 
acknowledge its usefulness and merit in time of 
necessity, as in a war of defence against foreign 
aggression. I even admit, that in order to resist 
with vigor, every member of the community 
should be exercised in the use of arms, and be 
obliged to defend his country in case of attack. 
The number of degenerated brains will always be 
small in proportion to the great bulk of the na- 
tion ; they will be easily kept in order, partly by 
the regular behavior and good example of their 
companions, partly by the severe laws of military 
discipline. Their number will also diminish by 
degrees, when all the principles of national edu- 
cation shall be practised. The great weight I lay 
on this proceeding depends on the means of puri- 
fying the race, by preventing the inferior organi* 
zations from propagating. 

The next object of national education concerns 
what is commonly styled physical education, or 
the regulation of the vegetative functions. It in- 
cludes the salubrity of air and light, cleanliness, 
food, clothing, bodily exercise, in short, corpo^ 
real health and strength, these being indispensable 
conditions to personal happiness and public use« 
fulness. 

In this respect, too, a good deal more than gen- 
erally js might be done ; in taking for granted that 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 227 

governments never act from selfish views, but al- 
ways with the intention to favor the public good, 
since they are aware that they themselves die, 
whilst their nation continues and may be everlast- 
ing, and that therefore they calculate their mea- 
sures not for momentary advantages, but for per- 
manent results. This latter point, however, is 
too often neglected, though it is a characteristic 
sign of greatness in a legislator, if his regulations 
be lasting, viz. adapted to nature and her manifes- 
tations. 

The preservation of bodily health and strength 
is of greater importance than legislators common- 
ly imagine, and its neglect during several genera- 
tions may greatly contribute to the fall of a nation. 
— Overgrown towns, capitals in general, after 
several centuries, would die out, if the inhabit- 
ants were not renewed by people from the country. 
In the same way whole nations may be weakened 
by various causes : they may degenerate, lose 
their energy, grow old, as it is commonly express- 
ed, and become incapable to resist foreign invaders. 
Hence, whatever besides the innate dispositions of 
the body and mind, concerns the salubrity of hab- 
itations, the purity of air in the streets and houses, 
food, cleanliness, bodily exercise, &c. belongs to 
the scope of legislation. This chapter is vast, and 
includes every point conducive to health and 
strength. 



228 



EDUCATION OF MAN. 



In this as in any other respect, nations, like chil- 
dren, do not always understand what is the most 
advantageous to them. They are two often satis- 
fied with temporary amusements, and neglect the 
conditions of permanent happiness. Legislators, 
therefore, be they hereditary and permanent, or 
chosen and temporary, might and ought to lead 
the community, and prepare their happiness, in 
the same way as parents provide for children. 

The views which governments entertain of their 
right to interfere with the personal liberty of the 
people, are sometimes very singular. They often 
show indifference about things which do harm to 
individuals and to the whole of the nation, and 
punish as crimes disorders which are of little con- 
sequence. They may wink at debauchery, drunk- 
enness, gluttony, luxury, &c. and bestow the 
right of hunting as a privilege ; they fix the quan- 
tity of wine which may be carried from one cellar 
to another, and inflict a penalty upon the trans- 
gressor, but license numberless ale-houses ; they 
grant only a small quantity of gunpowder to be 
kept in private houses, but tolerate gaming-places 
and lotteries ; they force the individuals to be 
sailors or soldiers, but have no authority to pro- 
pagate vaccination ; they oblige medical men to 
study anatomy, and inflict upon criminals the dis- 
section of their body as a punishment, &c. ; they 
allow the poor to multiply as they like, and force 
the rich to nourish the poor and their progeny, 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 229 

&c. Who does not perceive that they never hesi- 
tate to interfere in whatever answers their own 
purposes, always under the pretext of the common 
welfare, but that they have no right to restrain 
the personal liberty in whatever is indifferent to 
them. It seems to me that, among civilized na- 
tions, every interference of the government should 
be allowed which tends to the commonwealth, and 
which is obligatory for every member of the society. 
Personal exceptions are unjust, they weaken by 
degrees the force of the laws, and at last destroy 
their efficacy. 

The regulations concerning habitations and 
nourishment are of prime influence. The situa- 
tion must be healthy, the air pure, its circulation 
free ; hence the streets large, the houses not too 
high, the abodes and walks freed of every sort of 
ordure ; dunghills and filth at a certain distance 
from dwelling-places and public loads. In short, 
it is necessary to enjoy cleanliness of every de- 
scription, and j)ure air in every situation. 

Nourishment must be adapted to the constitu- 
tion, age, occupation, climate and weather. No- 
thing is wholesome or unwholsome in iUelf. In 
northern countries, and in cold weather, animal 
food is more easily digested than vegetables ; these 
latter, on the contrary, agree bitter in the south 
and in hot weather ; w'idst a mixture of meat and 
vegetables favors best bodily strength in temper^ 
21 



230 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ate climates ; but whenever animal food is well 
digested, it gives more strength to the body, and 
then vegetables, by feeding and multiplying do- 
mestic animals, should be changed into flesh, be- 
fore they serve to nourish man. 

Temperance and sobriety greatly invigorate the 
body and mind ; intemperance and debauchery, 
therefore, should be restrained by all possible 
means. The natural wants are to be provided ; 
and as Christians pray only for their daily bread, 
objects of refined cookery might be imposed with 
enormous duty, and drunkenness considered as a 
civil fault. 

As bodily exercise particularly strengthens, as 
it invites to sleep, and secures against great disor- 
ders, it is to be generally encouraged. Gymnastic 
amusements may be established for all ages and 
for all classes of society. The Jews were ordered 
on the sabbath day to take a walk out of the city ; 
and here rich and poor, young and old, master 
and slave, met and indulged in innocent mirth or 
in the pleasures of friendly intercourse. Moses, 
too, instituted three national festivals, not only 
for the sake of religion, but also to maintain na- 
tional union. The gymnastic exercises and na- 
tional games of the Greek and their good effects 
are generally known and admired. Why then 
are similar enjoyments and means of producing 
public spirit neglected by modern legislators ? 



EDUCATION OP NATIONS. 231 

Why are priests allowed to change the sabbath day 
into a day of gloom, whilst Moses wished it to be a 
day of cheerfulness ? The rich amuse themselves 
during the week, they have balls, or at least other 
parties of joy in which the clergymen themselves 
participate, but are the poor, who work from 
Monday to Saturday for their sustenance, to be 
entirely deprived of every kind of amusement ? 
Will they not naturally be drawn to ale-houses 
and gin-shops, or at least feel inclined to indulge 
in drunkenness or other animal propensities, since 
all public amusements even a walk in the fields 
are interdicted. The true sense of religion is mis- 
understood and the bad consequences are unavoid- 
able. I have reason to believe that refined civili- 
zation on one hand, and gloom in religion on the 
other, are great causes of misery and many secret 
sins which ruin the health of many individuals. 
Priesthood should consider it their duty to be 
better acquainted with human nature and the laws 
of the Creator, which man never violates without 
suffering for it. Religion cannot be instituted to 
make man miserable or to prepare him for the 
mad-house. 

Idleness, the great source of personal dissatisfac- 
tion and of many faults and crimes, should be de- 
clared a moral and civil vice, and as such prohib- 
ited. Every one should be obliged to exercise a 
profession ; mendicity entirely forbidden ; and 



232 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

every citizen honored in proportion as he con- 
tributes to the welfare of his fellow-creatures. 

Here a difficult matter presents itself concerning 
the poor and charitable institutions. The feelings 
are blind, and temporary relief of a feeling may 
do permanent mischief. This seems too much 
the case with charity. The poor are undoubtedly 
a burden to themselves and to the community at 
large ; 1 find, therefore, whatever contributes to 
increase their number objectionable, charitable in- 
stitutions not excepted, since in providing alimenta- 
tion for the poor they encourage their propaga- 
tion. It is not my object to examine tnis matter, 
but I admit, with all enlightened political Econo- 
mists that the number of population depends on 
the means of alimentation, though it cannot be 
said that the most populous countries are the most 
happy. I also refer the reader to the chapter on 
happiness, in the Philosophical Principles, Vol. II. 
of Phrenology, to make him understand my man- 
ner of thinking. I here confine myself to state 
the reasons which induce me to blame the obliga- 
tion to provide for the poor. It is generally un- 
just to force others to work for our welfare ; and 
if the government think it right to prevent me 
from doing so with others, there is no more right 
to oblige me to nourish others, or to work for 
them. All donations of this kind should be vol- 
untary. Governments may excuse this injustice 
by the public order and welfare, but would they 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 233 

not act more prudently by removing the causes of 
misery than by increasing the number of the mis- 
erable ? As general welfare is the aim of society, 
and as the poor-laws and charitable institutions 
augment the mass of misery, benevolent and char- 
itable persons will do well to reflect and reason 
before they act, in order to bring their feelings in 
harmony with reason. It is a well known fact, 
that charitable institutions of any kind never 
diminish the number of those who stand in need 
of assistance ; hence they give rise to permanent 
harm. Their nature should be changed, and it 
might be taken as a leading point, that public in- 
stitutions are to be abolished, if they augment 
public misery, and to be encouraged as far as they 
diminish misery and establish general happiness. 
Public schools where useful knowledge is taught, 
institutions for blind or for deaf and dumb, and 
hospitals for unforeseen accidents, are of the latter 
kind. Legislators in general are not careful 
enough in reference to pauperism. 

As sufficient alimentation is the first condition 
of our preservation, and as parents are bound by 
nature to bring up their children, those who can- 
not provide for a family should be prevented from 
propagation. On the other hand, as idleness and 
mendicity are civil faults, charitable institutions 
should be houses of correction or penitentiaries. 
The lazy and mendicants might be confined, in- 
21* 



234 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

structed, educated, obliged to work, and kept till 
they can provide for themselves. 

Again, as many occupations in society are hurt- 
ful to health, they must be superintended, partic- 
ularly if youth be employed therein. Children, 
for instance, brought up in factories and hot rooms, 
unavoidably degenerate, and become sources of fu- 
ture misery. 

The consequences of idleness and poverty being 
deplorable, activity and industry are to be patron- 
ized. Yet also this proceeding is not without in- 
convenience. Besides the misery which attends 
the working classes, in proportion as they degen- 
erate, the happiness of the families who enrich 
themselves by industry and commerce is never 
lasting, since riches invite to luxury, and luxury 
occasions many evils of body and mind in individ- 
uals and nations. I grant that, in the actual state of 
things, luxury has the advantage of bringing 
money into circulation, and this ought to be at- 
tended to as long as great riches are collected. 
But the mischief begins if the owners spend above 
their income, or if they look out for gain by every 
means. In this way, a too great anxiety about 
riches, as well as great poverty, do harm. 

Two important ideas concerning riches may be 
examined : 1 . Great wealth is neither sufficient 
nor necessary to personal happiness ; and, 2. 
Riches alone do not secure the duration of nations 
any more than that of families. 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 235 

The first idea is confirmed by daily observa- 
tion. A greater number of persons understand to 
make a fortune rather than to enjoy it ; and whilst 
they collect and work, they are commonly hap- 
pier and more satisfied than when they give up 
business and live in retirement. Personal happi- 
ness depends on health, and health on temperance. 
Now this virtue only requires a moderate income, 
which may be procured by a moderate exertion. 
This state again protracts the necessity to work, 
and keeps up an essential condition of happiness, 
which is no more possible without occupation than 
collecting wealth without activity. 

The second idea is equally certain, and confirm- 
ed by history. Monarchical governments, there- 
fore, who want a court and splendor, keep up 
rich families by primogeniture, and hitherto they 
endeavored to preserve their nation by poverty 
and ignorance. The examination of this subject 
belongs to political economy, a science destined, 
in my opinion, to discover means not only of col- 
lecting wealth, but of securing property. 

This object is interesting both in a moral and 
political point of view ; and here we find a new 
example of justice being inseparable from the gen- 
eral and permanent happiness of mankind. Rich 
families left to themselves degenerate. Now is it 
not evidently a great injustice, that degraded 
children enjoy wealth, whilst active and intelli- 



236 EDUCATION OF MAl*. 

gent members of society are deprived of the pos- 
sibility to ameliorate their situation, as it happen- 
ed under the feudal system ? The bulk of a na- 
tion living in that state is miserable, and the re- 
sources of its government are exceedingly small. 

On the other hand, if landed property remain 
in the possession of a few families, by the law of 

primogeniture, whilst others can enrich themselves 
by industry and commerce, the number of inde- 
pendent persons increases, welfare and comfort be- 
come more general, and the pecuniary resources 
of the government grow in the same proportion. 
Yet the injustice of primogeniture, and most likely 
the degeneration of families, will continue. 

But justice is accomplished, personal happiness 
procured to the greater number, and the greatest 
advantage secured to the government, if all sorts 
of privilege be banished, every individual allowed 
to employ his talents, and to earn the profit of his 
labors and to spend his property as he please* 
Under such circumstances individuals and fami- 
lies will disappear, but the nation will flourish 
and last. There will be talents in abundance ; ac- 
tive and intelligent citizens will collect riches, and 
lav great weight in tbe balance of national pro- 
pertv and resources. Yet it may be observed that 
the ari-tocracy of many, founded on the moral 
system of utility, without previous education and 
without natural sentiments of manners and refine- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 



237 



mcnt is the least agreeable. As rich families com- 
monly degenerate and become soon poor again re- 
fined manners are neglected ; even the fine arts 
are less cultivated, as long as the community 
stands in need of pecuniary resources. Marriages 
are formed according to the views entertained of 
wealth and comfort, however degenerated the par- 
ties may be under republican governments, there- 
fore, particular care should be taken in education 
with respect to social refinement. All possible 
means which prevent rich families from degenera- 
ting, ought to be pointed out and attended to. 
If the things go on as they did hitherto and still 
do, there is no wonder that many are disappoint- 
ed in their wishes and expectations. 

Natural talents and dispositions being different, 
there can be no equality except that before the 
law, which is the same to all, and equally pro- 
tects the poor and the rich ; which allows to 
every one the use of his powers, rewards personal 
merit, and makes every transgressor answerable 
for the disorders he commits. The natural dif- 
ference of mental dispositions, as to quantity and 
quality, and the innate love of distinction and 
superiority will always be a mighty cause of pub- 
lic disturbances. Rulers, therefore, ought to be 
very careful in regulating these nutters, and they 
ought to know that, without morality all their la- 
bor is in vain. 



238 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Those who take interest in the duration of 
public prosperity, will highly appreciate riches, 
and acknowledge the great influence and power 
which they bestow on their possessors, be these 
single individuals or nations. But governors will 
find, that, to produce the desired effect, besides 
riches, many other conditions concerning body 
and mind must be attended to, and just the same 
as are necessary to the improvement and preserva- 
tion of individuals. They will seriously reflect 
on what Lord Bacon said to King James, of the 
true greatness of Britain, viz. that in the measur- 
ing or balancing of greatness, there is commonly 
too much ascribed to largeness of territory, to trea- 
sure or riches, to the fruitfulness of the soil or 
affluence of commodities, whilst the true greatness 
requires a fit situation of place, and consists essen- 
tially in population and breed of men, so that 
every common subject should be fit to make a 
soldier. Supposing even that war might be avoid- 
ed, a healthy, intelligent and moral breed of men 
is still the most essential condition of national du- 
ration and happiness. 

The legislators in America might, nay ought 
to be particularly attentive to the laws of the new 
settlers. They may rely on the laws of nature 
being more powerful than their arbitrary concept 
tions. If they admit the races of men indistinctly, 
what they never do with animals, the country will 
and must experience more trouble than commonly 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 239 

is thought of. The slave dealers know that one 
race of negroes is preferable to another, and why 
should it not be the same with the white. The 
evil will not be remedied in educating the chil- 
dren and in establishing poor-houses for the heed- 
less adults. The number of troublesome citizens 
will rather increase by such means. 

The influence of public institutions is conceived 
and should be conducted according to the laws of 
exercise, (as explained above, Sect. I. chap, iii.) 
Institutions in order to produce effect must be 
lasting ; but every sort of institution, if continued 
for generations, will accustom whole nations to 
certain manners of feeling and thinking, and 
strengthen the special and individual powers of 
the mind. 

In examining this subject, the following propo- 
sitions may be laid down as principles. Nations, 
as well as individuals, act from feelings ; feelings 
do not result from intellect, nor intellect from 
feelings ; and every faculty, in order to be exer- 
cised, must be put into action. It may be added 
that, generally speaking, the selfish feelings are 
strong enough, and scarcely need any exercise, 
whilst those destined to forward the public hap- 
piness are commonly weak ; — farther, that lessons 
and sermons never suffice to root out strong feel- 
ings, and seldom hinder their disorderly effects ; — 
finally, that natural means may be employed with 



240 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

peculiar advantage, in order to increase, diminish, 
or prevent the activity of any fundamental faculty. 

As to the objects to be taught, two general re- 
marks may be made : it is a great error to con- 
fine education to intellectual instruction ; and, 
secondly, it is wrong to attend rather to theoreti- 
cal than practical knowledge. Ignorance is cer- 
tainly a fertile cause of error, but society at large 
will derive greater benefit from moral improve- 
ment than from scientific acquirements. Theo- 
retical schoolmen, I am sorry to say, are too 
much attached to intellectual instruction, and 
not enough to the progress of moral conduct. In- 
tellect, however, furnishes means to gratify the 
animal nature, as well as the nobler feelings of 
man. There should be schools for infants, chil- 
dren and youth, where positive notions of things, 
their usefulness and means of improvement, are 
communicated by the way of mutual instruction ; 
where, at the same time, morality is shown in 
action and imposed as a duty ; where refined man- 
ners are inculcated ; and where physical educa- 
tion is particularly taken care of. I hope the 
time will come, when every one will learn to read, 
to write and to cipher, in order to be able to ac- 
quire new notions, to teach others that which he 
knows, and to assist his recollection ; when all 
knowledge, extended according to age and partic- 
ular classes of society, will be practical, from the 
most common notions of household affairs and ag- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 241 

riculture, to the deeper conceptions of arts and to 
the principles of sciences ; when, at the same 
time, the feelings will be exercised and their 
actions regulated according to the principles of 
morality ; when nothing will he taught or learn- 
ed merely for the school, but every thing in refer- 
ence to universal happiness ; when the religious 
feelings will be cultivated in every one, not by 
words but in deeds, not by superstitious formali- 
ties, but in harmony with reason and with the in- 
tention to improve the fate of mankind ; when 
even the animal feelings will not be neglected, but 
only employed as powerful means to assist the 
faculties proper to man, which alone are the aim 
of our existence ; finally when all the powers of 
the physical, intellectual and moral nature will be 
cultivated in harmony. 

From the preceding remarks it follows, that the 
principles of excitement are the same for govern- 
ments as for parents. The same rule too, holds 
out with respect to the direction and employment 
of the special powers. Whatever contributes to 
the general happiness must be encouraged and 
commended, whilst the contrary is to be prevent- 
ed and forbidden. Education can neither be con- 
fined to the body nor to intellect, nor to the feel- 
ings, but all sorts of powers must be exercised at 
the same time, and in harmony with each other. 
Reason, destitute of the assistance of feelings, re- 
mains cold, and toolings without reason are blind 
22 



242 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

and prepare numberless disorders. Finally the 
affective and intellectual manifestations of the 
mind depend on the body. Even religion, with- 
out being combined with understanding, unavoid- 
ably degenerates into superstition, and may become 
a frequent cause of insanity and suicide. Religion 
too, as well as intellect, without morality, will do 
more harm than good to society at large, in nour- 
ishing party spirit, self-esteem and all sorts of 
selfish feelings. Civil governments, who know 
that they are instituted for the common welfare 
in this life, will proclaim the same rules of moral 
conduct for every member of the community, and 
tolerate every religious opinion, provided it does 
not disturb peace nor injure the rights of others. 
They will confine their exertions to the actual 
state of society, and not interfere in any way. with 
the life to come ; they will remit all conceptions 
of that kind to every one's own conscience. 
There will be no creed obligatory, and none will 
enjoy particular advantages ; in other words, 
there will be no religion of state. I also think, 
that such governments will consider it as right, to 
pay teachers only for things which are useful to 
every one, but refuse to charge the community 
with expenses for knowledge which is advanta- 
geous to single individuals alone. Spontaneous do- 
nations, or voluntary contributions, however, may 
be allowed to propagate knowledge of every kind, 
whilst the only duty of the government remains to 
protect every member of the community in his ex- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 243 

ertions, as long as they are harmless to others, and 
conformable to general justice. Taxation will be 
proportionate to the advantages which individuals 
derive from the institutions which must be paid 
for. The things indispensable to human exist- 
ence and preservation, such as air, light, and fuel, 
will be exempt from all duties, and indirect 
taxes in general will be abolished. Nothing but 
the right of the strongest, and selfishness, can keep 
up the things as they commonly are, in contra- 
diction with the principle that those who live have 
a right to exist ; that every one should earn but 
the profit of his labors ; that sinecures should be 
repealed, and idleness despised. 

A religious reform in general seems necessary 
and desirable. Very few among those who allow 
themselves to reason, believe that the priesthood 
has the power of sending into, or excluding from, 
heaven. Christianity and common sense teach 
that every one should do his duty, and that he can 
do no more. Religious teachers, therefore, should 
be considered in the same way as teachers in lan- 
guages, arts and sciences. Every one who has 
talent and time might study religious ideas, write 
and converse with others on them, in short, do as 
he pleases, provided he conducts himself in con- 
formity with the principles of general morality. 
Every one might read the Scriptures of Revela- 
tion, and form his own opinion ; and every civil 
government should follow the example of the Uni- 



244 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ted States of America, and abolish priesthood as a 
political body, or as a necessary division of the 
government. Jesus expressly stated, that his 
kingdom was not of this world. (Johnxviii. 36.) 

I am aware that the sacerdocy will object 
to such a reform, and do what they can to make 
man believe that there is no morality without re- 
ligion, and no religion without their office, and 
that they deserve to be largely rewarded. I, 
however, cannot help thinking, that man has been, 
and still is, misled by priests, because he is natu- 
rally religious, and that priests ascribe to their in- 
fluence what belongs to the power of the Crea- 
tor. The time of what was called theocracy is 
over. I can, however, conceive, that where civil 
governments decide in every respect what people 
are permitted to do, religious as well as political 
opinions are dictated ; but it seems natural to ad- 
mit, that where liberal principles prevail, reli- 
gious and civil liberty should go hand in hand. 
Yet there is still too much credulity among the 
great number of the congregations. They are 
occupied during the week in their worldly con- 
cerns, and on Sunday, without troubling them- 
selves much with examination, they will listen to 
their clergyman ; if he speak to their liking, and 
according to their feelings. Some teachers will 
cry against the great pope of Rome, but make at 
the same time the little pope in their pulpit, in 
Bending all who differ from their manner of think- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 245 

ing, to eternal damnation, whilst they declare 
themselves and their followers predestined to eter- 
nal beatitude : This doctrine, indeed, is comfort- 
able for the elect, and the congregation may say 
amen and sing Alleluia, but it shows also that 
common sense is sometimes wanted in religious 
considerations. I think it very wrong to leave 
these matters exclusively to a privileged profes- 
sion, whilst they ought to occupy every intelli- 
gent mind. I shall mention a few well known re- 
marks concerning the doctrine of the Sunday or 
as it is also styled Sabbath keeping. The Sabbath 
day is allowed to be a noble institution of Moses, 
who ordained it, as a day of rest for man and ani- 
mals, hence a benevolent regulation for all classes 
of working people, particularly for slaves. The 
cessation of labor on one day of the week, amelio- 
rates the condition of all laboring classes, and con- 
tributes to cleanliness, to the preservation of health 
and to the restoration of bodily strength. It also 
gives leisure for intellectual, moral, and religious 
instruction and meditation, and in fact a portion 
of the law was read to the Jews on the Sabbath 
day and their physical welfare was attended to. 
— No one can think that God in creating the world 
became literally speaking, fatigued, and wanted to 
rest and to refresh himself: (Exod. xxxi. 17.) and 
that this was the principal motive of the Mosaic law 
in reference to the Sabbath. It is only to be said 
that the Jewish language abounds in figurative ex- 
pressions. 

22* 




Um i 



and liw finl rhiidJMi (Jlcts xr 1. Cor- 

2 



to ibe 3d qvtsG&QXL. tL seen&u, wmt 
>&bmk as veil at caraw- 



ite Jjtrnteczl priestL&wL their maHama**, ihar 

--■■■ - ■'-. ■:■.'.' v ".;- 



E-DCCATIOW ©F 

\ we read :Iijl: Moses when he innt anted 
the Sabbath, gave at the same time rar ious other 
statutes, commandmeitts, and moral laws which 
ought : either kept or abolished togeth- 

er, tied a number of the Jewish moral 

laws. He. for instance, forbid polygamy, which 
: he abolished capital puni h 
. 

lany other alteratic :mthe 

on the i^;;:::: 



sIkki >ilent about it* whilst he ooa- 

• - 

_ - 

Jesus hi:: > - l>bath several 

at variance with the Jewish lav, for 

instance, with his . 

umd p l u cke d ears, — he .-v.rtv. . : ..sv\-._s:> . .". c'-c:-. 
said that * ibbath was made tor man and not 

man lor the Sabbath, and that therefore the Lord 
of man is Lord also of the Sabbath. (Mar V 

He even admoakhevi I 
V'.e .v.vl :-■ >.::.; :.' .':e r '..:-> ;:' lu\: . :':/•• v. e-e :o 
be knnu ieir good works ami mufunl lc 

I: klrt V:v>:'e> and r 

C istians k ■ a different man- 



248 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ner in which the Jews kept their Sabbath. St. 
Paul called a holyday, on the New moon or 
the Sabbath days a shadow of things to come, 
(Col. ii. 14—17.) He positively stated that " he 
who loves one another has fulfilled the law." 

It was, however, a practise among the first 
christians to assemble on the Lord's day, to sing, 
to break bread, to gather stores and to be instruct- 
ed ; in short they had religious assemblies upon 
the first day of the week as on the day on which 
Jesus arose from the dead ; — as a festival of the 
Creation ; — as a day of rejoicing and of holy wor- 
ship. But a cessation upon that day from labor 
beyond the time of attendance upon their meet- 
ings is not insinuated in any passage of the New 
Testament, nor did Jesus or his apostles deliver 
any command to their disciples for the discon- 
tinuance upon that day, of the common offices of 
their respective professions. If it was their inten- 
tion, they ought to have stated it, since they 
preached not only to Jews but also to Gentiles, but 
they never enforced the law of rest as in the Mo- 
saic laws. 

It is farther to be remarked that Pliny the 
younger in his letter to Trajan, where he made 
a report concerning the Christians, wrote that " he 
discovered nothing but that they were accustomed 
to meet together on a stated day before it was light, 
and sing among themselves a hymn to Christ, as a 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 249 

God, and to bind themselves by an oath not to 
commit any wickedness, nor to be guilty of theft, 
robbery, or adultery, never to falsify their words 
nor to deny a pledge." 

Finally, history tells us that Constantine first, 
A. D. 321, made a law for the observation of the 
Sunday throughout the Roman empire. The 
Sunday was declared a day of rest in cities and 
towns, but the country people were still allowed 
to follow their work. But in 330 the Council of Or- 
leans prohibited, also, country labor, and declared 
it unlawful to travel with horses, cattle, and car- 
riages ; — to prepare food ; — and to do any thing 
necessary to the cleanliness and decency of houses 
and persons. 

The only thing I contend for is that the Sunday 
of Christians cannot be the Jewish Sabbath, nei- 
ther as to the day nor as to the manner of Sancti- 
fication. Yet this institution is of great impor- 
tance, but enlightened minds will take greater 
views of it than mystical persons are wont to do. 
It is childish to think that we can do any thing to 
increase the beatitude of the Supreme Being. The 
name of divine service should be done away. Let 
it be a day of rest, and of physical, intellectual, and 
moral instruction and improvement, and of reli- 
gious adoration. It is also reasonable to commu- 
nicate instructive lessons in the form of songs, and 
the music may excite the nobler feelings, but it is 



CATION OF MAN. 

pitiful to 5?irj£. in disharmonious tones, any 
torical narrative of the Jews, or incomprehensible 
metaphors of imaginary minds. In short, this 

ution might be turned to the greatest benefit 
and i nt of body and mind, among the 

r, as well as the higher orders, whilst in the 

ordii if invites the former to 

lly and mentally speaking. — I 

the reader with to my ideas on the 

of Man- to the 
-'. Vol. of | 

ral may prove that the prin- 

ea of t: isfv my mind, 

but not Christianity disfigured by popery or by 

any sac their inclinations 

for the will -.:' 0, . and declare them nfid- 

d r - Creator 

eace and \ 1 happiness. On 

;-.-;l gof crnn i 

eems to 

. and | and even en- 

s as far as tl. condu- 

end ; but they 

tify- 

treat 

_ion a* ' should not 

•J ermine the happiness 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 

these being positively interdicted by Christianitv. 
The public wants to be enlightened. 

In giving freely my opinion, I follow the prin- 
ciple of Protestantism, which grants the use of 
reason, and I agree with them who think that no 
one has the right to ii ..is religious opinions 

. others : that true religion consists in the 
fulfilment of all our moral duties : that the be- 
lief of this truth having been revealed, is a g 
erf id motive to practise morality, and that this 

:he will of the great and all-wise Intelligence) 
who arranged the universe, who gave man his 
moral nature and the laws of reason. 

the other hand, I pity Mankind for not 
being able to bear the moral code of Christian 
and for not being ripe to religious and 

civil Liberty, It is lamentable to see. the 
some countries there are only masters and servants : 

and pc .ire esh 

ed to keep the people in subordination, and 
to mtii selfish views of their civil 

* 

§ us leade - d that even among civilized na- 

xiiown principles of g 
ment are in I ^reat bulk cannot 

to themselves, but must I. :' 

v from Co be Re 

:er i ' .. I hate a person : B 

bid ! I love vou all when you are good for any 
thing ; and as to the rest, I would mend them if I 



252 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

could, and that is the worst of my intentions towards 
them." And, from the Hints of a Barrister to the 
public, " Whoever sets the best example of indus- 
try, uprightness, charity, justice, benevolence, 
mildness, integrity, and all those practical vir- 
tues which are the basis, immoveable and eternal, 
of Christianity ; such a man is the best teacher of 
religion which the community can possibly re- 
ceive." On the other hand, I reject, as destruc- 
tive, every doctrine which sows a spirit of secta- 
rian bigotry ; generates superstition ; introduces 
discord into the circles of domestic life, depre- 
ciates the bonds of charity and peace, or even 
reprobates all practical virtues and righteousness 
as filthy rags, and which places peculiar doctrines 
above the authority of the Gospel, whose great 
tendency is, and ever will be, to excite the sinner 
to repentance and reformation ; — to cultivate be- 
nevolence and justice, and to link together man- 
kind in the bonds of peace and charity. 

A favorable change is wanted, but it may be 
asked, who shall produce it ? the governments, or 
the nations, severally or together? Hitherto nations 
are too much accustomed to be guided ; and gov- 
ernors too fond of commanding and imposing 
their good pleasure as law. Both parties seem to 
be wrong. Governments, it is true, may succeed 
better and sooner, since they can follow a regular 
plan, and have greater means of execution. But 
as rulers are too much disposed to do what flat- 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 253 

ters their selfishness, nations ought to think of their 
own welfare, and know that vox popull is vox Dei. 
Instead of expecting every improvement from 
their governors, they ought to work at their de- 
liverance from tutorage. There will be masters 
as long as there are servants, and children depend 
on their parents as long as they cannot gain their 
own livelihood. It is conceivable that govern- 
ments like to rule their subjects, but these are 
blameable for not using all reasonable means to 
gain and deserve their independency. They 
should be aware that a liberal government lets 
the people act for themselves, provided the com- 
mon welfare does not suffer, and that, on the 
other hand, governments are despotic in propor- 
tion as they interfere with personal liberty, and 
prevent the public good. In fact, in many situa- 
tions, when the things do not go on as they are 
wished for, nations may accuse themselves rather 
than their governors. By perseverance they will 
always obtain what they deserve. 

Remarks of this kind are also applicable to the 
improvement of religious creeds. It is an histori- 
cal fact, that the priesthood always wishes to keep 
religious ideas stationary, and that every religious 
reform began with individuals, cr with the civil 
power. This will be the case as long as religious 
governors do not keep pace in knowledge and 
moral improvement with the community at large. 
Any church whose tenets were composed in dark 
23 



254 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

ages, and adapted to the capacities of ignorant 
people, will be divided against itself, whenever the 
public become enlightened, and it must end in its 
overthrow, if the leaders remain in ignorance, and 
confound the aim of religion with the means 
that lead to it. The former certainly remains 
the same at all times, and amongst all classes, but 
the latter must vary in different periods of civil- 
zation. It is as lamentable as repugnant, to hear 
ignorant teachers speak of the heavenly Father as 
endowed with qualities for which every reasona- 
ble person would disdain his neighbor. The evil 
is great, and deserves the serious attention of the 
civil and religious governors. 

What, then, is to be done to establish civil and 
religious liberty ? Is it sufficient to proclaim a re- 
form ? By no means. The French tried one 
constitution after another, and it is scarcely deci- 
ded which suits them best. Civil and religious 
liberty may be the law of a country while slavery 
and religious tyranny continue. It happens that 
there is sometimes more religious freedom under 
absolute governments than in republics. Man 
does not like to obey and to revere, but he is 
fond of governing others. He contends for free- 
dom for himself, but thinks to have the right to 
enslave others. When will stupidity and im- 
morality, severally or jointly, cease to govern 
human affairs ! 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 255 

It is certain that the natural dispositions and 
their activity determine the progress of civiliza- 
tion in nations as well as in individuals. Ignorant 
people are fond of darkness, while enlightened na- 
tions cannot bear measures of obscuration. The 
French revolution abolished all external decora- 
tions and signs of distinction, but it was easy for 
Buonaparte to introduce them asrain, since the 
love of approbation is an essential feature in the 
French character. Any reform succeeds easily, if 
it be in harmony with the most active powers ; 
but it will never take root, if it be contrary to the 
predominant powers, or if the necessary powers 
do not act. The doctrine of the innate dispositions 
cannot be taken too much to heart by those who 
wish to exercise an influence on the community. 
They may direct the given powers to different 
applications, but they can neither create nor anni- 
hilate. Many historical facts will be explained, 
and many erroneous opinions of governments will 
be rectified, when the innate dispositions are 
understood. Then, also, not only the different 
progress in the various branches of literature, arts, 
and sciences, but also their modifications, in dif- 
ferent nations, will be easily conceived. 

Amongst many instances which might be quoted, 
I shall mention the following. The Reformation, 
undertaken by Luther, and continued by Calvin 
and others, gained more ground in Germany than 
in France, and it is more advanced in Scotland 



256 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

than in England, and it turned out very different- 
ly in different countries. There is a [great deal 
of marvellousness and of the reflective powers in 
the Germans and in the English, but many of the 
former will begin with examining how far it is 
reasonable to believe, and give up rather belief 
than reason ; whilst the latter take belief as indis- 
pensable, and reason merely on interpretations. 
Self-esteem and love of notoriety are great in the 
English and French ; but Self-esteem is propor- 
tionately greater in the former, and love of appro- 
bation, combined with form, in the latter. The 
English, in their display of show, betray their 
predominant feeling, and wish to possess or do 
what others cannot ; for instance, to appear very 
rich in keeping horses, carriages, and many ser- 
vants, dressed in shoes and white silk stockings ; 
whilst the French wish to be approved of, and to 
attract the attention of others by a fine taste in 
their show-things. Thus, it is certain, that les- 
sons will make impression, and institutions suc- 
ceed, in proportion as they are adapted to the 
character of nations to whom they are given. De- 
fective heads can neither excel in arts and sciences, 
nor in the refined principles of morality or Chris- 
tianity. 

The influence of institutions on nations does not 
only depend on their being adapted to the innate 
dispositions, but also on their duration. Their 
effect is insignificant, if they be transitory and can- 



EDUCATTON OF NATIONS. 257 

not form habit. Any new institution, like any 
new doctrine, in order to be of permanent useful- 
ness, must become, so to say, incarnate, or be in- 
fused in the minds of the people ; but then their 
influence is certain, since the innate powers being 
exercised during generations, increase, and act Avith 
facility. I copy a suitable passage from the 
introduction to the History of France, by Cha- 
teaubriand, read by himself to the Academic 
Francaise, in the sitting of the 9th of Feb. 1826. 

" It has been said, that from the time of Vespa- 
sian to Marcus Aurelius, was the period during 
which mankind enjoyed the greatest felicity. 
This is true, if the dignity and the independence 
of nations are to go for nothing. 

" Every imaginable kind of merit appeared at 
the head of the empire. Those who possessed 
those qualities were free to undertake any thing 
they pleased ; they were shackled by no restraints ; 
they inherited Nero's absolute power ; they could 
employ for good the arbitrary authority which 
had hitherto been used only as an instrument of 
evil. What, however, did this despotism of 
virtue produce ? Did it reform manners ? 
Did it re-establish liberty ? Did it preserve the 
empire from its approaching fall ? No ; the hu- 
man race was neither altered, nor improved. 
Firmness reigned with Vespasian, mildness with 
Titus, generosity with Nerva, grandeur with 
23* 



258 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Trajan, the arts with Adrian, the piety of poly- 
theism with Antonine, and lastly, with Marcus 
Aurelius, philosophy ascended the throne ; — yet 
the fulfilment of this dream of sages, was produc- 
tive of no solid results to the world. No amelior- 
ations are durable, none indeed are possible, when 
any act of government proceeds from the will of 
individuals, and not from laws and institutions ; 
and the pagan religion, no longer supported or 
corrected by austerity of manners, transformed 
men into old children, destitute alike of reason 
and of innocence. 

" There were, at this period, some Christians in 
the empire, they were obscure and persecuted, 
yet, with their despised religion, they accomplish- 
ed what philosophy upon the throne could not 
achieve. They instituted laws, corrected man- 
ners, and founded a society which exists to this 
day." What a great lesson for legislators ! It is 
easy to regulate, but to give the feeling for the law, 
requires time and more than to give orders. 

In the examination of this subject, it is found 
that religious and civil regulations are degraded 
and improved in the same degree, and by the 
same reasons. Stupid and ignorant people are 
superstitious, and believe in the good pleasure of 
their absolute rulers. Whoever is not able, or 
does not dare to think, or does not feel contradic- 
tions and absurdities, is unfit for a refined religion 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 259 

and civil liberty. Understanding, indeed, is the 
first condition of civil and religious, as well as of 
personal and moral liberty, and ignorance a fer- 
tile cause of superstition and slavery. Under- 
standing improves plants and animals, and it is 
necessary to the improvement of nations and of 
the nature of man. The Germans, expressing 
civilization by the word aufklaerung (enlighten- 
ing,) indicate that they consider intellect as the 
basis of improvement. 

The great point in this discussion is to deter- 
mine, first, the origin and cause of liberty, and 
then the means of establishing and maintaining it. 
None of the faculties, common to man and ani- 
mals, conceives the idea of civil liberty any more 
than that of religion. These conceptions result 
only from the human powers, and are retarded in 
their progress in proportion as they are influenced 
by the animal powers. The animal feelings are 
selfish, wish for personal advantage, like to take 
the first place in society, and dispose to religious 
intolerance and civil despotism. Hence, a nation 
is unfit for liberty in proportion as the animal 
powers are predominant over those proper to man. 
Courage, bravery, and stubbornness to death, are 
by no means sufficient to establish this happy 
state of society. Even the higher animal feelings, 
as attachment, love of approbation, cautiousness, 
acquisitiveness, and the perceptive faculties, are 
incapable of securing it. The animal nature, it 



260 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

is true, is powerful to oppose despotism, and so 
far conducive to liberty. Whilst timid, poor, 
and ignorant people remain slaves, the courageous, 
intelligent, and industrious seek for independency. 
In consequence, instruction and industry are the 
great means of establishing liberty, whilst igno- 
rance and poverty are its greatest enemies. In- 
dustry procures riches, and these enable the pos- 
sessor to cultivate his understanding. It is, there- 
fore, not astonishing that all those who treat of 
political welfare speak of industry as necessary 
and favorable to liberty. But those who think 
that industry and riches are sufficient to secure 
liberty, are mistaken ; they evidently confound 
the means of establishing this great blessing with 
its primitive source, and with the means of main- 
taining it. Riches alone being a great cause of de- 
generation in body and mind, are incompatible 
with permanent liberty. The same uncertainty 
of things continues, even if riches be assisted by 
understanding, since the motives of all actions 
still remain selfish and of the animal nature. 

With the faculties proper to man morality be- 
gins, and by their influence the animal nature is 
directed, every kind of privilege abolished, the 
number of public officers who require emoluments 
diminished, every individual permitted to use his 
talents as he likes, provided he does not injure 
others ; every community allowed to regulate its 
special concerns, personal merit alone rewarded, 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 261 

the general welfare thought of, in short, civil lib- 
erty acknowledged. And if such a liberty be 
granted in worldly affairs, it is still more necessa- 
ry in things and opinions relative to the life to 
come and religion. The effect of feelings proper 
to man can become reasonable only by its union 
with the reflective powers, and natural morality 
is a corner stone of the preservation of any so- 
ciety. 

On the other hand, though the human nature is 
the source of civil and religious liberty, yet the 
faculties proper to man are not capable either of 
establishing or of warranting liberty. To that 
effect they need the assistance of instruction and 
of the animal powers, particularly of industry, or 
acquisitiveness, self-esteem, courage, and perse- 
verance. In order then to establish and maintain 
civil and religious liberty, the whole man, his 
vegetative, affective, and intellectual faculties must 
be exercised, but the animal faculties constantly 
subordinate to those proper to man, that is, natur- 
al morality must prevail. 

In this way we have a criterion to decide 
whether, and how far, a nation is fit for civil and 
religious liberty ; whether, and how far, liberty 
which is granted or gained can last ; and whether, 
and how far, governments earnestly prepare the 
nations for that happy state. In the same way, 
those who wish to forward liberty, may conceive 



262 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

what is to be done to secure general and perma- 
nent felicity, and why hitherto all partial means 
could not succeed. Union and morality alone can 
save the future happiness of the United States of 
America. Being divided or without morality they 
will have the fate of the ancient and modern na- 
tions of the old world. Intellectual education 
alone cannot produce the desired effect, whilst the 
animal feelings predominate and physical educa- 
tion is neglected. Let the legislators be aware of 
the detrimental consequences of selfishness, luxury, 
ambition, vanity, of the animal feelings in general, 
of all causes which contribute to the degeneration 
of body and mind : let them be particularly care- 
ful about pauperism on one side, and great riches 
on the other, about idleness, degeneracy of the 
race and immorality. Praying alone, and reli- 
gious ceremonies will not remedy natural evils and 
the neglect of the natural laws, 

A delicate question too, viz', whether any nation 
of those we know of, can bear the Christian reli- 
gion in its greatest purity, and a republican gov- 
ernment in its strictest sense, may be answered in 
the negative, on account of the animal nature be- 
ing still disproportionate to that proper to man. 
In speaking of a republican government in the 
strictest sense, I mean a state of mind, where every 
one sacrifices his private interest to the common 
welfare. 



EDUCATION OF NATIONS. 263 

In supposing then that any ruler may have the 
best intention to fulfil his duty, I conclude this 
chapter with repeating the points indispensable 
to his success. Let him become acquainted with 
human nature being threefold, with the innate- 
ness of the affective and intellectual faculties, 
with their dependence on the cerebral organiza- 
tion, and with their modifications in the nation 
he governs. Besides, let him understand that 
every innate power tends to action, but that the 
motives of the same action may be very different ; 
that regulations founded only on truth and moral- 
ity can last, and that the physical, intellectual, and 
moral nature of man must be cultivated in harmo- 
ny. Farther, an important point for him is to 
know to employ every one according to his natur- 
al gifts and talents, be it as servant, soldier, ar- 
tisan, merchant, artist, teacher of any kind, leg- 
islator, superintendent or president. He also 
must be aware, that various talents are given to 
all classes of society, to poor and rich, to coun- 
try people as well as citizens ; and that natural 
nobility and personal merit of talent and virtue 
alone deserve distinction. 

In republican governments on the other hand* 
the electors must keep in mind that intellect is not 
morality, that individuals must be judged of by 
their actions and not by their speeches, in the same 
way as the tree is known by its fruit, and that 
no one who strives for private interest and for- 



264 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

gets the common welfare, should be at the head 
of public affairs. 



CHAPTER VII. 



A FEW IDEAS ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 

Various opinions are entertained upon the 
question, whether public or private education be 
preferable. The term education is here taken in 
a limited sense, and the answer would be easy, if 
education were what it ought to be. In the ac- 
tual state of things, the greater number of parents 
cannot adopt the private mode of education for 
want of pecuniary means. They must have re- 
course to public schools, if they wish to give to 
their children any education at all. The question, 
then, concerns chiefly the richer classes of society. 

There are advantages and disadvantages on both 
sides. Generally speaking, in private education, 
moral conduct and religious principles may be 
more carefully taught, and the natural disposi- 
tions better exercised. But here we must suppose 
the governors to be of superior ability. Such 
persons, however, are not so easily found. On 
the other hand, private teachers and servants 



ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 265 

kindle very often inferior propensities, which 
would remain inactive were the children sent 
to public schools. Again, as the education of 
boys and girls must be conducted in a different 
manner, particularly in large towns, several day 
or boarding-schools become necessary. And if in 
these the moral conduct be particularly attended 
to, they will combine the advantages of a public 
and private education. In them, physical educa- 
tion can be better attended to than at home ; 
common play grounds and bodily exercise can 
be more easily procured. Such abodes are 
commonly in healthy situations, and better teach- 
ers may also be provided. It is of advantage 
to children to afford them opportunities of 
comparing their talents with those of others. 
When alone, they easily think themselves above 
all other children, but when together, they often 
feel their inferiority. The less intercourse we have 
with others, the sooner we are satisfied with our- 
selves. This happens with children as well as 
with adults. Those who have travelled with re- 
flection and without prejudice, lose in many re- 
spects their national pride. They find that every 
where there are good and bad, ignorant and well- 
informed persons. Whoever remains confined to 
his own small circle, thinks all other society infe- 
rior, partly through a natural attachment to his 
accustomed manners, and partly through his not 
knowing what others are, or what advantages they 
possess. 

24 



266 EDUCATION OF MAN. 

Knowledge of the world, of different characters, 
of manners and social intercourse, is an important 
point in education. It is easily acquired in public 
institutions. Children soon learn to distinguish 
between the different manners of feeling and think- 
ing of their companions. 

Greater uniformity in manners, more mutual 
attachment and general benevolence, more order 
and greater readiness to obey and to depend on 
their superiors, may result from public education. 
There the feelings, in general, may be more easily 
exercised and directed, because society is indis- 
pensable to that purpose, and private education 
can never afford the same opportunity. Finally, 
the great effect of emulation is entirely lost in 
private instruction ; and emulation may be neces- 
sary to some children in order to push them on. 

Thus, even in the actual state of things, public 
institutions are preferable, and they will be far 
superior, if once regulated according to sound 
principles and adapted to human nature. 

Conclusion. 

The great object of education is, not to create, 
but to prepare, to develope, or to impede, and to 
direct the natural dispositions : vegetative, affec- 
tive and intellectual. The nature of the funda- 
mental powers, and the conditions on which their 



ON PUBLIC AND PRIVATE EDUCATION. 267 

manifestations depend, must be known, to enable 
us to cultivate and direct them. The difference 
between the feelings and intellectual faculties, is 
particularly to be attended to. Then, if the 
means of excitement and those of direction be em- 
ployed, as I have detailed them, arts and sciences 
will improve, moral evil will diminish, and man- 
kind will become more happy. I do not flatter 
myself, however, that in the present state of man- 
kind, the most perfect education can abolish all 
disorders. Hence, institutions of another kind 
are necessary, which I shall speak of in the follow- 
ing pages. 



APPENDIX. 



ON THE CORRECTION OR REFORM OF MALEFACTORS. 

y 

As individuals differ exceedingly from each 
other in the innate strength of their faculties, there 
can be no doubt that adults, as well as children, 
if entirely left to themselves, and to the motives 
which spring up in their own minds, would not 
all be influenced either by the same number, or 
by the same kind of motives, nor would each mo- 
tive act with equal force in all. Besides, the 
faculties which produce the lower propensities, 
do not of themselves produce good actions, and 
as they are stronger than the faculties proper to 
man, legislation is necessary to direct mankind. 
In regard to many particular acts, the government 
must command what is to be done, and forbid 
what is not to be done ; seeing few individuals 
possess so favorable an endowment of dispositions 
as to be naturally prone to virtue, or to have the 



DEFINITION OF LEGISLATION. 269 

law written in their hearts. Now, the general 
aim of all legislation ought to be the happiness of 
mankind, combined, as far as possible, with that 
of each individual ; or, in the language of Phre- 
nology, it ought to be to establish the natural mo- 
rality of man, confirmed by true Christianity. 
The lower animals have no conceptions of moral- 
ity, because they do not possess the faculties which 
produce the moral sentiments and reason. Hence, 
those faculties which are proper to man alone, 
conceive the necessity of legislation, and without 
them there would be none in mankind any more 
than in the animals. 

Definition of Legislation. 

I take this expression in its most extensive sig- 
nification, and conceive it to comprehend the reg- 
ulation of the manner in which all our faculties 
ought to be employed. Positive legislation has 
been, and still is, very different in different coun- 
tries. The same actions have been and still are 
considered now as crimes, and then as virtues. 
The first great object is to distinguish natural 
from positive laws. It appears to me that both 
ought to be the same, and that the natural laws, 
in as far as they are known and admitted, ought 
to be declared positive, and to guide the actions 
of man. No one, therefore, should endeavor to 
make laws, but only to discover those made by 
the Creator, to submit to them, when discovered, 
24* 



270 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

as to his will, and to dispose others to follow this 
example. 

Positive laws are divided into Divine and Civil. 
The former are given by God, the latter by hu- 
man legislators. 

The question which naturally occurs is, whether 
there ought to be differences between the natural, 
Divine, and civil codes. Hitherto thinking peo- 
ple have not agreed, and the one makes war 
against the other ; but I am of the decided opinion 
that mankind cannot become happy till the laws 
of the Creator are put into practice. To say 
that the revealed law is not the same as the natur- 
al, is to suppose that God is not the Creator of 
mankind, or that he has been in contradiction 
with himself at different times. Such notions 
seem to me absurd, and I cannot admit any interpre- 
tation of the revealed law, which is evidently in 
contradiction with the real nature of man. More- 
over, since man cannot create, he ought not to 
set himself up as an inventor of laws ; nor attempt 
to control the course of Providence, or counteract 
the nature of things. As already said, he should 
try to discover, and having discovered, to submit 
to the arrangements of the Creator with respect 
to his vegetative, affective, moral, and intellectual 
nature. 



DEFINITION OF LEGISLATION. 271 

Civil legislation is necessarily divided into dif- 
ferent branches, but they ought all to have con- 
stantly only one and the same aim, and to be the 
result of one and the same spirit. Hitherto sel- 
fishness has been the principal object of all civil 
legislation, and of every branch of it. Soldiers 
wish for war, and an opportunity of spoliation ; 
lawyers also have too constantly in view their own 
special advantages ; and the members of the ordi- 
nary professions do not think it necessary to con- 
ceal, that the end and aim of all their exertions is 
selfishness. The same anti-social principle is vis- 
ible in all worldly affairs ; and even the clergy, 
whose employment is to prepare man for eternity, 
too frequently show that selfish motives are in 
fact the mainsprings of their conduct. This over- 
whelming flood of selfishness must abate, or the 
general happiness of mankind remain an impossi- 
bility. There is only one permanent legislator, 
viz : the Creator, and whatever erects itself 
against his institutions, or deviates from them, is 
usurpation and folly. 

It is certainly a difficult task to discover clearly 
the law established by Nature, and to bring all 
branches of legislation into harmony with the Cre- 
ator's will. Happily, however, Nature has few 
laws ; but it is of great importance to know that 
she never admits of an exception, and punishes se- 
verely every neglect. This subject being of the 
highest importance, any attempt to elucidate it 



272 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

cannot be considered as an idle occupation, and is 
the true object of a philosophical catechism, which 
I have published separately. 

In this summary view of criminal legislation, 
we may consider legislation in three points, viz : 
its aim ; the means necessary to attain it ; and the 
persons subject to the law. 

Aim of Legislation. 

Legislation begins with the sentiment of duty. 
In my opinion, the duty of man, according to the 
will of the Creator, consists in general Benevo- 
lence and Reverence. Hence the natural law re- 
quires more than the civil. Justice, according to 
the latter, is merely passive, viz : not to take from 
others that which belongs to them ; while, accord- 
ing to the former, we are obliged to do to others 
what we wish they should do to us. Thus Chris- 
tianity coincides with the natural law. Love thy 
neighbor as thyself, is the touchstone of all legis- 
lation as to its aim. 

Means to attain the Aim of Legislation. 

The second part of legislation concerns the 
means necessary to attain the proposed aim ; but 
this point is not yet accomplished. Either, there- 
fore, those who have it in their power do not ear- 
nestly wish for it, or they have not intellect enough 



MEANS OF PREVENTION. 273 

to choose the necessary means, or the general aim 
of legislation is not kept constantly in view. This 
field is extremely extensive, but without the reach 
of my study. I shall confine myself to a few re- 
marks, with respect to criminal and penal legisla- 
tion, which certainly has improved in modern 
times ; first, with respect to the means of prevent- 
ing crime ; and, secondly, with respect to those of 
correcting criminals. 

There were ages when criminal legislators 
thought it their only duty to punish or to revenge 
themselves on those who were disobedient ; the 
animal powers dictated the penal laws, and the 
feelings proper to man had no share in them. 
Now-a-days, it is admitted that the penal code 
ought to have for its objects the prevention of 
offences against the welfare of society, the correc- 
tion of those who have failed in their duty, and 
securing the community against incorrigible mem- 
bers. This aim is laudable ; but as it is not at- 
tained, we are led to conclude that the means em- 
ployed to effectuate that purpose are not the best 
that might be chosen. 

Various kinds of punishments have been, and 
are inflicted, in order to deter men from commit- 
ting criminal actions. Malefactors are deprived 
of their personal liberty, and are confined to pri- 
son, for a shorter or longer period ; some even for 
life. They are treated with more or less severity; 



274 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

some remain idle ; others are condemned to hard 
work. Some are exiled or transported ; others 
put to death. 

Experience, however, shows, that punishments 
alone do not produce the desired effect. Even 
at an execution for stealing, pickpockets are 
sometimes busy committing their depredations. I 
do not say that punishments are useless ; I only 
say, that they by themselves are not sufficient to 
prevent faults and crimes. Hence governments 
must have recourse still to other means. To 
choose these means correctly, it is necessary to 
discover the causes of criminal actions, for crimes 
will cease to be committed as soon as their causes 
are removed. 

The most important way of preventing crime, 
is that of improving mankind by every possible 
means, and especially by those spoken of in the 
preceding pages on education in general, and on 
that of nations in particular. Let the inferior 
races, whose actions are stigmatized by crimes or 
disorderly living, be prevented, as much as possi- 
ble, from propagation ; for it is a fact well known 
to those who have attended to the subject, that 
the organs of the animal passions, like those of the 
other faculties of the mind, are hereditary. More- 
over, let ignorance, idleness, intemperance, and 
poverty, which are the principal causes of crimes, 
be prevented, and there will be little occasion for 
prisons. 



MEANS OF PREVENTION. 275 

In the General View to this work, I have con- 
sidered the great influence of ignorance on the 
moral conduct of man. Instruction, indeed, will 
greatly improve the human character, aid the fa- 
cility of acquiring it in our days is a great bless- 
ing to mankind. It is therefore the duty and in- 
terest of wise and paternal governments to diffuse 
instruction as widely as possible, according to the 
capacities of the people, and according to local 
and particular situations ; and whoever wishes to 
promote the moral conduct of mankind, and in- 
sure their happiness, will favor public institutions 
for useful information. But knowledge is not 
virtue, and more attention than hitherto has been 
given, must be paid to the moral improvement of 
mankind. 

It is both more effectual towards promoting the 
welfare of society and more agreeable, to correct 
morals, than to punish crimes. To that end it 
ought to be a serious aim with governments, to 
adopt means to exclude idleness and intemperance 
from society. Children should be accustomed 
to sobriety, and the practice of intemperance 
despised, and represented as degrading a sensible 
being. Every person found intoxicated in the 
streets should be taken up and confined for twen- 
ty-four hours, and fed on bread and water. 

Persons when drunk are deprived of the use of 
their reason, and often inclined to abuse their ani- 



276 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

mal propensities ; and hence the welfare of so- 
ciety requires them to he placed in a situation 
where they can do no harm, and which may con- 
tribute to their correction. The criminal records 
of every country bear evidence of flagitious 
crimes committed, and much misery inflicted, of 
which drunkenness was the proximate cause. 
Governments are therefore wrong in licensing 
numberless ale-houses and gin-shops, and in afford- 
ing great facility of pawning. 

In the Chapter on National Education, I have 
already said, that in a well regulated state, no 
poverty ought to be seen, and no mendicity toler- 
ated ; that each citizen ought to exercise a pro- 
fession, and each beggar to be shut up, and to be 
forced to work in public employments ; that char- 
ity is misapplied, and idleness rewarded, if in- 
dustrious people be obliged to support the poor. 
This subject, being of the utmost importance, de- 
serves a particular examination, and the repetition 
of some ideas does not seem to be out of place. 
The law obliging the rich to nourish the poor, is 
an indirect infringement of personal liberty, and 
in opposition to the basis of a free government, 
which admits private property, and encourages 
every one to use his talents, in as far as is con- 
sistent with the general happiness of the nation. 
The poor laws encroach on this right, and do 
harm to society. They in fact hold out to the 
profligate, the idle, and the imbecile, an invitation 



MEANS OF PREVENTION. 277 

to act without regard to the consequences of their 
actions, and promise them, that if they are over- 
taken by the calamities which nature has attached 
to heedless conduct, the virtuous and considerate 
shall be made to bear the burden for them. 

If the poor, an account of their right to per- 
sonal liberty, cannot be prevented from marrying, 
the rich, for the same reason, cannot be forced to 
nourish them. It is an infringement of the per- 
sonal liberty of an industrious citizen, to be com- 
pelled to support a lazy drone. If the poor must 
be permitted to marry, after the consequences are 
pointed out to them, then, at least, let every one 
be equally free ; let him who gets children pro- 
vide for their subsistence ; and let him who labors 
reap the whole fruits of his own industry. 

But, it may still be said, that whoever lives has 
a right to the prolongation of his days, and that, 
hence, the necessitous must not be allowed to 
perish. Strictly speaking, there is no doubt that 
those who exist have a right to partake in what- 
ever nature produces. But civil laws are destined 
to keep order, and to regulate property. Now, 1 
am willing to admit, that humanity calls upon us 
to preserve those who actually exist ; but it ap- 
pears to me to be impossible permanently to ame- 
liorate the condition of the poor, except by pre- 
venting them, by some means or other, from 
excessive propagation. In the first place, It is a 
25 



278 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

general law in nature, and it holds good in the 
case of mankind, as well as in every other species 
of animals, that every germ produced is not per- 
mitted to prosper and to multiply. As things are 
now managed, however, the best and most con- 
siderate of the race, are those who are most 
restrained from multiplying ; because they see the 
evils, and endeavor to avoid them, while the 
worthless and unreflecting indulge their propen- 
sities without fear, and fill the world with misery. 
This is exactly the reverse of what it ought to be. 
Moreover, for the sake of general order, sailors 
and soldiers are prohibited from living in matri- 
mony, and why should not the same liberty be 
taken with the poor ? If they can show that they 
have the means of supporting a family, they are 
no longer poor, and the interdict would not apply 
to them. Many things are forced upon, as well 
as interdicted to individuals, for the sake of gen- 
eral happiness ; and this being the principal aim 
of society, I cannot conceive a reason why the ab- 
ject poor may not be hindered from marrying, 
for the general good, just as they are excluded, 
for the same reason, from directing the govern- 
ment. 

The law should harmonize with the manners 
and morals of the day, the punishment propor- 
tioned to the crime, and no hope left to the crim- 
inal to be pardoned. 



MEANS OF PREVENTION. 279 

Finally, the surest and most universal means 
of preventing crimes, would be, if selfishness 
could be made subservient to general benevo- 
lence, and if morality could become the leading 
aim among all nations ; — then the kingdom of 
Heaven would in fact arrive. The influence of 
this principle cannot yet be felt by mankind at 
large, and many may therefore say, Why, then, 
do you speak of it ? I answer, Because it appears 
to me that the arrangements of nature admit of 
such a state, and that men require only to under- 
stand and practice her laws, to bring it about ; 
and as the tendency of the mind is to approxi- 
mate towards truth, and to appreciate it when 
discovered, I am not without hope, that the time 
may come, when the higher sentiments shall pre- 
vail over the lower propensities, and benevolence 
over selfishness. Truth, whether admitted or re- 
jected, is and remains always truth. At all events 
no encouragement should be given to the abuse 
of the lower feelings, nor any facility offered to 
commit crimes. Bigamy, for instance, and seduc- 
tion are facilitated by the permission of marrying 
without a certificate of any kind. 

I am convinced, that in proportion as the pre- 
ceding means are neglected or attended to, offences 
and crimes will be committed or prevented ; and 
that by applying them in practice, mankind will 
improve their condition more than by punishing 
malefactors, and praying the Heavenly Father 



280 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

for his assistance, while they neglect the natural 
means of preventing crimes, and producing good. 
The blessing of God will follow as soon as we sub- 
mit to his laws ; but prayers for it, while we con- 
temn them, are impious and absurd. Prisons are 
not become useless by building churches and by 
the influence of Bible and tract societies. How- 
ever, I do not mean to say, that Christianity is in- 
effectual in preventing crimes ; I only maintain 
that all means, natural and supernatural, should 
be employed. 

Natural means of correcting Malefactors. 

Let us now examine how far the second point 
of criminal legislation, viz. the correction of mal- 
efactors, has been attained. Experience shows, 
that punishments alone do not correct delinquents, 
any more than they prevent disorders, and that 
the common way of treating criminals depraves 
rather than improves them. This truth is more 
and more perceived, and some practical results 
have already taken place, which have proved 
highly beneficial ; and I hope that the good effect 
they produce will encourage their adoption in all 
countries. One great subject of regret, however, 
remains, that the nature of man is not sufficiently 
understood, and that in consequence, many modi- 
fications of treatment, which individual malefac- 
tors require, are entirely overlooked. 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 281 

Formerly, malefactors of all kinds, young and 
old, persons seduced by strong temptation into 
crimes, even those who were only accused and 
detained on suspicion, and inveterate villains, were 
shut up together. In many prisons they were 
idle, or if they ' had some occupation they were 
generally unprofitable, sometimes too easy, at 
other times too hard, often dirty and unwhole- 
some ; and because punishment, and not reform, 
was the principal motive of confining prisoners, 
they were treated with neglect. Their food was 
not sufficient, and sometimes noxious. Prisons 
were sometimes erected in damp and unwhole- 
some situations. The prisoners were, on account 
of ill treatment, affected with various cutaneous 
and scrophulous diseases, with blindness, dysen- 
tary, consumption, typhus, &c. Such aggrava- 
tions of punishment were too severe, and against 
the intention of the law. 

This error has been felt, but in our days mea 
are falling into an opposite extreme. In many 
prisons there is too much comfort, and not pun- 
ishment enough. Here and there they become 
houses of reward. They perhaps appear still 
uncomfortable to the rich adminstrators, but they 
afford more comfort than the greater number of 
criminals are accustomed to. The prisoners are 
clothed, secured against the inclemency of the 
weather, have a good bed to rest on, and are bet- 
ter nourished than at home. Some persons, in- 
25* 



282 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

deed, commit faults in order to be taken into them. 
Such prisons fail to effect their purpose. To be 
confined in a prison, ought always to be a disa- 
greeable situation in one way or another. A 
proper arrangement would be, to have in each 
prison a variety of apartments, affording different 
degrees of comfort and accommodation, and to 
put every atrocious criminal into the lowest first, 
and let him rise to the higher as his moral im- 
provement proceeded. This would be a practical 
illustration of the great natural truth, That a state 
of vice is one of misery, and a state of morality 
one of comfort and enjoyment. Prisons construct- 
ed on such principles would no doubt require to 
be extensive ; and they would, in their first erec- 
tion, be expensive. But whether would a nation 
derive greater ultimate advantage from a sufficient 
number of such establishments, to correct and re- 
strain the vicious part of her population, or from 
a victory in a war about a sugar island ? And 
the sums consumed by the nations of Europe in 
prosecuting quarrels which have no natural foun- 
dation, and in inflicting misery on each other, 
would have placed a penitentiary in every depart- 
ment of every kingdom ! Such are the results of 
the dominion of the animal over the man in hu- 
man affairs. 

There are still other causes which prevent the 
correction of prisoners. Prisoners are taken in 
ignorant, idle, poor, and disorderly, and are dis- 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 283 

missed in the same state, or perhaps more instruct- 
ed in vice. Being together, they are induced to 
converse ; and even where this is prohibited when 
at work, they take advantage of every moment, 
when the overseer is absent, to do so, or they find 
in the yard an opportunity of becoming acquainted 
with their companions. They tell each other their 
crimes and tricks ; and every new comer, especially 
if his natural dispositions harmonize with that 
kind of instruction, profits by such lessons, and 
his corruption is soon complete. In a short time 
the novice is accustomed to live intimately with 
the outcasts of mankind, becomes one of them- 
selves, and then all shame and bashfulness disap- 
pear. In this manner, according to the saying of 
the criminals themselves, prisons are schools where 
all sorts of vices are taught. The malefactors be- 
come friends, and form projects, to be executed 
when they are liberated ; they organize bands, and 
prepare to pursue with greater audacity their for- 
mer criminal life. 

The greater number of malefactors who are lib- 
erated, are incapable of gaining their livelihood. 
Their immoral habits, their idleness, and even 
sometimes their intemperance, have been increased 
during their confinement, and nothing can be more 
natural, than that they should yield again to their 
animal dispositions. Nay, some are forced to con- 
tinue their depraved^ manner of living, to escape 
dying of hunger. This, for instance, is the case 



284 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

with those who are branded, and publicly dishon- 
ered. Who will give employment to such indi- 
viduals ? Who will work with them in the same 
shop ? If it seem necessary to brand, in order to 
know whether a criminal has already committed a 
crime, let it be done where the mark may easily 
be concealed. 

Another manner of treating prisoners, without 
correcting them, and which is very illiberal to- 
wards neighbouring countries, is that of sending 
all malefactors over the boundaries. Such a 
course of proceeding should be only permitted in 
cases of political errors. In other cases, it is say- 
ing to a malefactor, Do not steal in my house, 
but go to my neighbour's, and do what you 
please. 

The common way of treating criminals gives 
rise to another injustice against society. Accord- 
ing to the common mode of conducting jails, 
those who, by their criminal actions, disturb the 
general peace, live at the expense of the quiet and 
honest citizens. It is indeed shameful, that male- 
factors, who are commonly stout fellows, and in 
the best years of their lives, should not gain the 
necessary means of subsistence, while manufac- 
turers get immensely rich by the employment of 
other people. 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 285 

Thus, it is high time to rectify such abuses. 
The aim of all prisons for malefactors, who are to 
be sent back into society, ought to be only one 
and the same, viz. correction. But, then, in order 
to change the houses of Perversion, which all com- 
mon prisons are, into houses of Correction, other 
regulations must be put into execution, and the 
prisoners should be kept till, in all probability, 
they are corrected, 

I repeat that these ideas are not new, but they 
must be repeated till they are practised every 
where. First, then, let the causes which produce 
offences and crimes be removed. Ignorant people 
who are taken up, should receive instruction, and 
their attention should particularly be directed to 
their duty in society. They must be treated as 
grown up children whose education has been 
neglected. It will be more difficult to change 
their habits than those of children, but they are 
more capable of feeling the difference of motives, 
and their will may exercise a greater influence on 
their actions. 

Solitary confinement is one of the most effectual 
means of improvement. Let it not be said that 
the punishment is too hard and may derange the 
mental dispositions of .some criminals. This will be 
exceedingly rare but it will correct the greater 
number of them. Let the directors of prisons 
be competent judges of human perversity, and let 



286 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

them be allowed to modify the severity of pun- 
ishment according to the individual characters of 
criminals. Let even the committee of overseers at- 
tend to this regulation, and give relief, if necessary. 

Idleness ought not on any account to be toler- 
ated in prisons. Those who know a trade, may 
continue to exercise it ; and those who do not 
know, may learn one. The better heads may su- 
perintend the inferior, and become their masters 
and teachers. Every prisoner should be compelled 
to work to pay his expenses. If they gain more 
than is necessary to supply their wants, and if 
they have placed their fellow creatures in misery > 
those, for instance, who have stolen or destroyed 
the whole property of a family, ought to be obli- 
ged to indemnify them as far as possible. Moses 
ordered the thieves to be slaves for a certain period 
of indemnity. Others, who gain above their per- 
sonal wants, may be allowed to turn it to the profit 
of their family, or may put it aside to receive it at 
their exit. Prisons should be open to the gratui- 
tous inspection and superintendance of intelligent 
and benevolent individuals of the community, or 
if such cannot be found, the prisoners might work 
to pay inspectors. The confinement should las 
till the occasional causes which gave rise to the 
offence are removed, and till amendment is proba- 
ble ; and on being released, the prisoners are, for 
a certain time, to be observed by the inspectors or 
the police. If each large town were divided into 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 287 

districts, and several of the respectable inhabitants 
of each district would act as inspectors, and visit 
the released prisoners who come to settle in it, 
they might save many from relapsing into crime. 

The system of confining prisoners indefinitely 
till corrected, certainly supposes perfect justice in 
the management of the jails ; otherwise persons 
might be detained in prison from improper mo- 
tives, and much longer than necessary for amend- 
ment. Such an abuse ought to be most carefully 
guarded against ; and, perhaps, the best of all 
checks to its existence, might be found in the 
system of open and gratuitous inspection by benev- 
olent individuals above recommended. The pub- 
lic could never conspire to do injustice to an in- 
dividual ; and while his confinement was contin- 
ued under their eye, there would be very little 
chance of its being unjustly and unnecessarily pro- 
longed. Or, the period of confinement might be 
mentioned in the sentence, leaving power to the 
inspectors, or some properly constituted authori- 
ties, to shorten it on proofs of amendment. 

The efficacy of prisons established according to 
sound principles, is no longer speculative. Penn 
first showed it in a practical way at Philadelphia. 
Several States in America, and several govern- 
ments in Europe have followed his example, and 
the result has perfectly answered their expecta- 
tions. Relapses of malefactors dismissed from 



288 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

prisons and common houses of correction are usual, 
while in the houses of correction, conducted ac- 
cording to the new plan, a small number are con- 
fined a second time, particularly when they are 
kept for some time. 

The new method of treating criminals is advan- 
tageous also in other respects to society. The 
prisoners gain more than they consume, and being 
corrected, they no longer injure orderly, nor se- 
duce innocent persons. 

I cannot help mentioning a singular idea which 
prevails in different places, where means of public 
education are provided for, but where masters 
shall be required, subject to a committee, to expel 
from school any pupil who shall manifest an habit- 
ual and determined neglect of his duties. 

This advise does not seem to be conformable to 
Christianity. Jesus did not come to call the 
righteous, but the sinners to repentance. The par- 
able of the prodigal son, too, is given in a quite 
opposite spirit. I think that such individuals should 
be particularly taken care of and not let loose 
upon society and exposed to all sorts of criminal 
temptations. Might they not be confined to a 
house of reform and accustomed to regular habits ? 
The house of reform of Juvenile delinquents at 
Boston, in the hands of the Rev. Mr. Wells fur- 
nishes a convincing proof, what may be done with 



MEANS OF CORRECTION. 289 

such young offenders. Blessed be those who save 
their fellow creatures from the precipice of per- 
dition, and turn them to the path of righteousness. 

It is important to understand human nature, 
and the modified characters of the malefactors, 
in order to treat them properly, because every 
measure which the natural constitution of each 
individual renders available to produce amend- 
ment may require to be employed. A knowledge 
of this kind will confirm and render still more 
useful the practical views of several intelligent 
benefactors of mankind. The reader may con- 
sult John Howard on Prisons and Houses of Cor- 
rection ; the work on the Prisons of Philadelphia, 
by a European (Duke of Liancourt ;) Theorie 
des Paines et des Recompenses, par Jeremie Ben- 
tham ; An inquiry, whether Crime and Misery 
are produced or prevented by our present system 
of Prison-discipline, by Thom. Buxton ; the An- 
nual Reports of the Board of Managers of the 
Prison-discipline Society in America, &c. ; and 
he will find in Phrenology, a most satisfactory 
theory to explain and to direct the farther appli- 
cation of the practical maxims of these and other 
authors. 

Treatment of Incorrigible Offenders. 

I come to the third point of penal legislation, 
viz. that which has for its aim to secure society 
26 



290 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

against incorrigible individuals. I shall not enter 
into the vain discussions on the right of society to 
inflict capital punishment. I take it for granted, 
that society is entitled to cut off one of its limbs 
for the sake of the happiness of the rest, if there 
be no better means of securing that end ; but 
death, as the last evil, ought not to be inflicted till 
all other means have proved ineffectual. 

Some crimes are punished with death, in order 
to prevent their repetition. All judicious writers, 
however, speak with regret of the frequency of 
capital punishment, and deny that it has this par- 
ticular effect. Death is not equally frightful to 
every one. Criminal legislators judge of others 
according to their own feelings ; they fear death, 
hence they think that all men do the same. Ex- 
perience, however, shows that to many persons 
death, when contemplated at a distance and as a 
contingency, is not appalling. Nay, by some, 
even the immediate infliction of it appears to be 
regarded as a small evil. The unfortunate wish 
for it, in order to be delivered from their pains. 
Those in despair destroy themselves, and many 
become the martyrs of ambition and religion. 
The laws, themselves, suppose that the loss of 
life is little in the eyes of many criminals, for 
means are taken to prevent them from putting an 
end to their days, which they would do rather 
than be confined for life. It is certain, that 
many criminals are not at all moved by the sen- 



INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS. 291 

tence of death, and that they go to the gallows 
with perfect calmness and resignation. Inveter- 
ate criminals commonly say, Dying is nothing, we 
must finish in that way. 

It appears to me, that there is no harm in de- 
livering society from villains, particularly from 
those who are dangerous to the existence of others. 
A tree that brings forth no fruit, is cut down and 
burnt ; a furious animal is killed ; and a danger- 
ous fellow may, on the same principle, be extir- 
pated. Yet I am also of opinion, that capital pun- 
ishment might be abolished, and replaced by other 
means which would be more effectual to protect 
society. There is an inconsistency in the present 
practice of inflicting death as a punishment for a 
great variety of offences ; for certainly crimes dif- 
fering greatly in atrocity do not merit exactly the 
same retribution. If it be true that crimes must 
be judged of according to the perversity of the 
malefactor, and according to the mischief which 
results from the offence ; and if it be established 
as an axiom, that a crime consists in the intention 
and not in the action ; all crimes which are at 
present capitally punished, cannot be considered 
as equal in guilt. A man who intentionally kills 
his benefactor, or another who kills one who has 
excited his jealousy and disturbed the peace of his 
family ; an inexperienced girl who, in a moment 
of despair, destroys her offspring, ihe cause of her 
misery for life ; the horrid monster who strangles 



292 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

an old father to enjoy his inheritance the sooner ; 
the prostitute who assassinates the companions of 
her debauchery ; and the highwayman whose 
whole life is only a succession of robberies and 
murders, who spreads desolation and devastation 
in whole districts, cannot be considered as equally 
guilty. Either, therefore, the minor offences 
should be visited with a less punishment than 
death, or, to preserve consistency, the greater 
offences should be followed by death aggravated 
by increased horrors ; a proposition at which even 
the sanguinary spirit of legislation would revolt. 
But as it is said, that death is the ultimate extent 
of judicial authority over malefactors, and that 
every punishment beyond it is cruelty, it ought 
not to be inflicted on individuals who might be pre- 
vented from doing evil by other means, such as 
confinement and education ; nor on those equally, 
who are guilty in very different degrees, particu-. 
larly since it does not prevent others from com- 
mitting similar offences. 

If the proper means of education and correction 
were employed according to the law of nature, the 
injustice in criminal legislation, now mentioned, 
might be avoided ; and, indeed, there would soon 
be no occasion for capital punishment at all. 
There ought to be a particular establishment for 
those who are confined for life, regulated by sound 
principles. It may be found necessary to treat 



INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS. 293 

some with severity, yet by far the greater number 
will be kept in order by less severity. 

The idea of punishment is closely connected 
with that of the different degrees of guilt. If the 
reformation of malefactors were the principal ob- 
ject of the penal code, the possibility and means 
of correction would be the first object to be con- 
sidered, and the extent of the guilt only the 
second. Punishment would then be viewed as 
one of the means of correction, but all the others 
would likewise be examined and employed. The 
greater the villain, the more care would be taken 
to correct him. At the same time, it is natural to 
consider the different degrees of guilt. On this 
point, many ideas may be communicated which 
are not adequately understood by legislators, be- 
cause they are not sufficiently acquainted with hu- 
man nature. 

It is scarcely possible for human intelligence to 
decide with perfect justice, in regard to the pre- 
cise extent of guilt and innocence in every par- 
ticular case. All the motives and causes which 
have determined a malefactor to commit a crime, 
cannot be known by man, and without such a 
knowledge, it is impossible to form a perfectly 
just estimate of the exact degree of guilt. Such 
a judgment must be remitted to Him alone, who 
is all-wise. Although, however, human wisdom 
has limits, it must extend itself as far as possible. 
26* 



2 94 CORRECTION OP MALEFACTORS. 

In penal legislation, extenuating and aggravating 
motives are admitted ; and indeed some indi- 
viduals, the fatuous and insane, are not held as 
answerable at all for their actions. In other cases, 
actions may be clearly illegal, which nevertheless 
admit of extenuating motives. I shall speak of 
several grounds of extenuation which appear to 
me to be founded in nature, but which nevertheless 
are not considered as such in different countries. 



ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WITHOUT GUILT. 

The first condition upon which a man is an- 
swerable for his actions, is that he is free. Here 
I take it for granted, that my ideas on moral lib- 
erty, such as they are developed in The Philo- 
sophical Principles, Part. II. of Phrenology, are 
known to the reader. Whenever moral liberty is 
wanting, there is no guilt. This is the case at 
those periods of life when the human faculties 
have not acquired strength enough to exercise 
will, viz. in infancy, or when the influence of will 
is suppressed by the state of disease. In all coun- 
tries, a certain age is fixed when punishment may 
be inflicted. It is also admitted, that the dis- 
eased state of the manifestations of the mind ex- 
cludes culpability ; but the extent and appear- 
ances of this state are not sufficiently under- 
stood 



ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS 295 



I. — Illegal actions of Idiots. 

Idiocy is Complete or Partial : Instances of the 
former kind are rare ; of the latter numerous. 
Complete idiotism is easily distinguished, and does 
not require a detailed elucidation ; but the com- 
mon manner of judging of incomplete idiotism 
is frequently very erroneous. Legislators and 
judges are not yet convinced that there are various 
faculties of the mind, and that the manifestations 
of each power depend on a particular part of the 
brain ; that one or several organs may be very 
active, while others are in a state of idiotism. 
These facts, however, which, although not gen- 
erally admitted, are true, explain why, in some 
individuals, the perceptive faculties and the infe- 
rior propensities may be very active, while the 
powers of the moral will are silent. Such indi- 
viduals are like animals, and cannot be moved by 
moral motives. They act only according to the 
feelings which they possess, without being able to 
choose between motives. Pinel speaks of an 
idiot who had the most determinate inclination to 
imitate the voice and gesture of all persons around 
her. It is observed, says Fodere, " That by an 
inexplicable particularity several cretins, endowed 
with so little intelligence, are born with a particu- 
lar talent for drawing, musical composition, 
rhyming, &c. I have seen," continues he, " sev- 
eral of them, who learned, by themselves, to play 



296 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

pretty well on the organ or harpsichord ; others, 
without having had any master, knew how to 
mend watches and to make various mechanical in- 
struments. This phenomenon probably results 
from the more perfect organization of the organ on 
which such or such an art depends, and not at all 
from the understanding. For, these individuals 
do not know how to read books which treat of 
the principles of the respective arts ; they are even 
disturbed at being desired to learn the principles.'' 
(Trate du Goitre et du Cretinisme. Paris, 1S00> 
p. 133.) 

I have mentioned many cases in my work on 
Insanity (p. 120 — 133. ;) and in that on Phrenol- 
ogy, where 1 speak of destructiveness and acqui- 
sitiveness. Idiots, although mischievous, are not 
objects of punishment, yet it is rash to say, that 
all means of correction are useless. They ought, 
at all events, to be prevented from doing harm to 
others ; and as they cannot be left to themselves, 
there ought to be houses of security for such un- 
fortunate individuals. 

There are cases, in which it is extremely diffi- 
cult to decide whether there is or is not will. 
" Persons," says Dr. Rush, (Diseases of the Mind, 
p. 268.) a who are inordinately devoted to the use 
of ardent spirits, are irreclaimable by all the con- 
siderations which domestic obligations, friendship, 
reputation, property, and sometimes even by those 



ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF IDIOTS. 297 

which religion and the love of life can suggest to 
them. An habitual drunkard, when strongly 
urged by one of his friends to leave off drinking, 
said, Were a keg of rum in one corner of a room, 
and were a cannon constantly discharging balls 
between me and it, I would not refrain from pass- 
ing before that cannon, in order to get at the rum. 

" There are many instances," continues Dr. 
Rush, " of persons of sound understanding, and 
some of uncommon talents who are affected with 
the lying disease. Persons thus diseased, can 
neither speak the truth upon any subject, nor tell 
the same story twice in the same way, nor de- 
scribe any thing as it has appeared to other people. 
Their falsehoods are seldom calculated to injure 
any body but themselves, being, for the most 
part, of an hyperbolical or boasting nature, and 
not injurious to the characters and property of 
others. That it is a corporeal disease I infer from 
its sometimes appearing in mad people, who are 
remarkable for veracity in the healthy state of 
their minds, several instances of which I have 
known in the Pennsylvanian hospital. Persons 
affected with this disease, are often amiable in 
their tempers and manners, and sometimes benev- 
olent and charitable in their dispositions. Lying, 
as a vice, is said to be incurable. The same thing 
may be said of it as a disease when it appears in 
adult life/' 



298 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

The time will come when several malefactors 
will be declared insane, who are now punished. 
The only difference, however, will perhaps be in 
the aim of their confinement, viz. they will be 
shut up, in order to be prevented from doing mis- 
chief, instead of being shut up with the view of 
making atonement to justice. The laws of Nature 
are severe, but they are just. General order must 
never be allowed to suffer for the sake of one or 
several individuals. Even these persons, how- 
ever, must, as much as possible, be allowed to en- 
joy their natural rights. In a prison at Berlin 
(Stadtvogtey,) we found a boy of an unfortunate 
cerebral organization ; the forehead was low and 
narrow, depressed immediately above the eye- 
brows, much hollowed sidewards above the eyes, 
but large and prominent at the temples. His 
countenance indicated slyness and malice. Dr. 
Gall said, that such individuals should not be 
left at liberty, but ought to be kept in an establish- 
ment for security. The registers, when referred 
to, proved that the boy, from infancy, had shown 
the most obstinate propensity to steal. Such in- 
dividuals, indeed, become more incurable upon 
every relapse. In such cases, all means of cor» 
rection should be tried first, and if these are found 
fruitless, it should then be declared lawful to de- 
tain them for life, but to treat them with hu- 
manity. They ought to be considered as persons 
affected with a disease, pregnant with danger to 
society. In general, nothing but amendment of 



ILLEGAL ACTIONS OF MADMEN. 299 

conduct should entitle malefactors to return to the 
society which they have disturbed. 

Intellectual idiotism is commonly understood, 
but there is also a moral idiotism. Some indi- 
viduals may possess intellect and strong animal 
feelings, but very weak moral sentiments which 
seldom, if ever, enter into activity, so that such 
persons constantly follow their animal propensi- 
ties. They are deprived of sufficient moral mo- 
tives and cannot be considered as accountable be- 
ings. Society has no other right but that of pre- 
venting them from disturbing others. 

II. — Illegal actions of Madmen. 

Madness is every where allowed to take away 
guilt, but its nature is not sufficiently understood. 
The most important points to be attended to are, 
that it may be general or partial ; that the feel- 
ings as well as the intellectual faculties may be 
deranged, and that general and partial insanity 
may be continual or intermittent. General and 
continual madness is easily distinguished, but 
partial and intermittent insanity is less known 
than it ought to be. 

My ideas on these points are detailed in my 
work on Insanity, and I refer to it for a fuller de- 
velopment of the subject. Individuals under the 
involuntary influence of these faculties through 



300 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

disease, are to be treated as patients and cured, 
not as criminals to be punished. 



ON ILLEGAL ACTIONS WHICH ADMIT OF EX- 
TENUATING MOTIVES. 

It is impossible to weigh exactly the motives 
which may produce illegal actions. In examining 
whether an action be just or unjust, we common- 
ly think only whether it is conformable to the 
law or against it. Yet, as long as legislation in- 
tends to punish, the degree of guilt attributable to 
the individual cannot be entirely overlooked ; for 
otherwise, an idiot who assassinates would be lia- 
ble to the punishment of a sane person ; in short, 
extenuating motives would not in any case be ad- 
mitted. 

Violent passions and affections, such as anger, 
fury, jealousy, rage, &c. are considered as a tran- 
sient madness, and are justly admitted as extenu- 
ating motives. But it ought to be known, that 
some persons may feel internally an excessive ex- 
citement of these affections, who restrain the out- 
ward expressions of them ; nay, that such per- 
sons sometimes suffer even more than those who 
manifest their anger externally, and who tear their 
hair or stamp with the feet, &c. Shame, despair, 
and many secret affections darken the spirit of 
man, as much as sudden and violent passions ;and 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 301 

they derange equally the state of health and the 
judgment. 

Moreover, the same exciting cause will act 
violently on one person, and scarcely make an 
impression on another, according to their natural 
constitutions. Certain kinds of food, principally 
liquors, excite differently the individual disposi- 
tions of different persons. Wine or brandy ren- 
ders one courageous and quarrelsome, another 
eloquent, sincere, amorous, sorry, gay, &c. The 
highwayman, Peter Petri, a companion of 
Schinderhannes, seemed to he insensible in his 
common state ; but when he had taken several 
glasses of brandy, he behaved like a tiger, and 
attacked friends and enemies indiscriminately. 
We know the history of a woman who, after 
drinking some glasses of brandy, felt a strong in- 
voluntary desire to become an incendiary. Illegal 
actions done during drunkenness, at least the first 
time, should find in it an extenuating motive. 
The guilt is greater, if the effect of spirituous 
liquors be known, and if they be not avoided. 

The most intricate situation, with respect to ex- 
tenuating motives, is when one faculty in particular 
is extremely active in individuals. This may 
happen with regard to every power. If it be the 
case with a superior faculty, such as benevolence 
or reverence, the individual may be said to be for- 
tunate. Yet, in the same way, every other feeling, 
27 



302 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

for instance, an insatiable desire of glory, may 
govern the whole conduct of some persons ; and 
again, every animal propensity may become exces- 
sively active. This state is not insanity ; the in- 
dividuals are able to distinguish the influence 
which excites them, and have power to restrain 
it, and are therefore answerable for their actions ; 
but their situation is an unfortunate one ; for they 
are called upon to maintain a dreadful struggle 
with their ruling propensity. I know of a family 
in which the desire to drink liquors is hereditary ; 
the grandfather and the father have killed them- 
selves by hard drinking, the grandchild, when 
only five years of age, manifested the same incli- 
nation. There are similar examples with respect 
to acquisitiveness and destructiveness. The ques- 
tion, then, is, Whether and how far the innate dis- 
positions, when in this manner excessively strong, 
are to be considered as extenuating motives ? At 
all events, it is certain, that not only violent and 
sudden affections, but also various other excite- 
ments ought to be considered as extenuating ; and 
I have no doubt that they will be admitted by 
degrees, as they are understood. 

Let us examine a few examples, among the in- 
finite number which might be quoted. A first 
lieutenant was inspired with a passion for the wife 
of a private in his company. This virtuous 
woman steadily refused his propositions and im- 
portunities, without saying a word of it to her 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 303 

husband. One day, at exercise, the lieutenant 
treated the husband very ill, and ordered him 
several times to be bastinadoed. As the husband 
complained, he was treated as stubborn and mu- 
tinous, and forced to be silent by fifteen other 
blows. His unfortunate wife told him the inten- 
tion of the lieutenant. From Thursday to Sun- 
day he meditated and projected the death of his 
wife and his children. He admonished his wife 
to confess, and to go to the communion table. He 
did the same. He was always mild, a good father, 
and an excellent husband, but during these days 
he excelled in these qualities. On Sunday, after 
dinner, he proposed to his wife to take a walk 
with him. He conducted her under the sallow- 
trees, planted along the glacis of the citadel at 
Breslaw, and, whilst caressing her most tenderly, 
he pierced her heart with a dagger. He went 
back in haste, that he might not be prevented 
from sending his two children into heaven. He 
hoped to find in them intercessors before God. 
He killed them with a little axe ; placed them on 
the bed, their arms crossed ; went then direct- 
ly to the guard, with a countenance of satisfaction, 
and told what he had done. "Now," added he, 
" may the Lieutenant of ### make love to my wife. 
She and her children are secured against seduc- 
tion and dishonor. They will be obliged to me 
for their happiness, and pray for me in heaven. " 
The court-martial, at Breslaw in Silesia, did not 
think of extenuating motives, but even aggravated 



304 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

his punishment, by depriving him in prison, and 
at the moment of execution, of the presence of a 
clergyman who might encourage and prepare him 
for death. 

The work of Crichton on Insanity contains 
several examples of this kind. " Catharine 
Hanslerin, forty-five years old, was an inhabit- 
ant of Donauworth. She had been twelve years 
married to a man of a severe and unfeeling temper, 
and, excepting a fever, and some slight cau- 
ses of indisposition, was a tolerably healthy 
woman. About the end of the year 1785, 
she was detected in stealing milk in the village 
where she lived. She solicited, in the most ear- 
nest manner, that the circumstance might be con- 
cealed from her husband, whom she dreaded. It 
was promised, but not observed. At first, he was 
told of it in an obscure way, but he afterwards 
discovered the whole truth. 

" The detection of her fraud made a deep im- 
pression on her mind, not only on account of her 
good name, but also on account of the treatment 
she was likely to receive from her husband. In 
consequence of this, she became low in spirits, 
and melancholy. She had confessed, but it did 
not relieve her mind. She prayed often, without 
knowing what she said. She had been frequently 
seized with violent headaches, during which she 
was not conscious of what she did, 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 305 

" Her husband, when he heard of her stealing, 
beat her severely. After this ill-treatment, she 
went to bed, trembling for fear, and dreading 
worse usage the next day. Her daughter, a little 
girl seven years old, came to her bedside, and 
prayed with her. She had formed the resolution 
of leaving her husband, and asked her daughter, 
if she would stay with her father ? This the girl 
refused to do, as she was afraid of him. After 
praying devoutly, early in the morning she left 
her husband's house, and took her daughter along 
with her, and also her infant, that was only two 
months and a half old. As she was about to de- 
part, she again asked her daughter if she would 
not rather live with her father ? The girl an- 
swered she would rather die. The thoughts which 
this answer occasioned in the mother's mind, the 
misery and distress which surrounded her, the 
fear of what might happen to her children in case 
she died, and, at the same time, her own ardent 
wish to finish her existence, all these thoughts 
caused her to form the barbarous resolution of 
drowning them. 

" The infant she took in her arms, and being 
arrived at the banks of the Danube, she caused 
her daughter to kneel down and pray to God 
to deserve a good death. She then tied the in- 
fant in the arms of the girl, blessed them by 
making the sign of the cross on them, and threw 
both into the river. She afterwards returned to 

07* 



306 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

the village, told what she had done, and was ex- 
ecuted." 

" A young woman, twenty-three years of age, 
was sent to the house of correction at Onolbach, 
1755. She was received with blows and stripes. 
This treatment made so deep an impression on her 
mind, that she began to detest life, and in order 
to get rid of it, determined to commit murder. 
She thought that by so doing, she would have time 
allowed her for repentance, which she knew she 
could not have, were she to destroy herself. She 
premeditated her design in cold blood, and ac- 
complished it on another woman in the following 
manner. 

" One Sunday she complained of being ill, and 
requested to be excused from attending Divine 
service. A simple, and half fatuous girl was 
allowed to attend her. She convinced this girl 
that there was no hope of their being relieved 
from their present miserable situation, but by 
their both consenting to die, and she proposed to 
the girl to kill her first. The girl was soon recon- 
ciled to the proposition, and the only condition 
she made was, that her companion should not hurt 
her. She stretched herself out, and the murder- 
ess accomplished the horrid crime by cutting the 
girl's throat. 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 307 

"Upon being asked, in the court of justice, 
what could have induced her to commit so horrid 
a deed, as the murder of her fellow-prisoner ? she 
answered, Fear of the sharp blows and pain she 
knew she had to sustain in the house of correction. 
She thought within herself, If I take away my 
own life, my soul is lost for ever ; but if I murder 
another, though in that case I also must forfeit 
my life, still I shall have time to repent, and God 
will pardon me. When she was asked, Whether 
she had no hatred against the deceased, or if she 
had ever received any ill-usage from her ? she an- 
swered, That the deceased had never done her 
any injury, and if any thing vexed the deceased, 
she always came to her to make her complaints. 
Upon being asked, if she slept well after having 
committed so horrid an act ? she answered, That 
she prayed to God before going to bed, and slept 
well, and when she awoke, she again prayed. She 
seemed perfectly calm and collected during her 
trial, until it was explained to her, that she had 
drawn down the eternal wrath of God upon her- 
self. Then she wept bitterly. The physician 
ascribed the crime to despair, and tcedium vitce ; 
but the law would not understand the hint." 

There is a similar fact mentioned in the journal 
which is published at Leipzig, under the title 
Zeitung fur die elegante Welt, (N. 92. 1st. Aug. 
1805.) Amongst a great number of malefactors 
confined in the prison of Torgaw, and presented 



308 CORRECTION Off MALEFACTORS. 

to Dr. Gall, there was a woman who had drown- 
ed her child, a boy of four years old. Dr. Gall 
examined her head, then took the hand of Profes- 
sor Loder, who was present, and put it upon the 
organ of Philoprogenitiveness, that he might ex- 
amine its size. When the prisoner had retired, 
Gall said that that organ was great in this woman, 
the organ of Murder (as it was then called) small, 
and that, in general, her head was well organized. 
He desired to be informed of her character and 
capacities, principally with respect to her crime. 
The magistrate said that this person was born of 
poor parents, whom she had lost early, and that 
she had received no education. When grown up, 
she became a servant in the village. Every one 
was satisfied with her conduct and behaviour. Un- 
fortunately she was seduced, and had a child. 
The being to whom she gave life was the cause of 
her misery. She was dismissed from service, and 
no one would receive her on account of her child. 
For a long time she did not know how to endure 
her situation. She loved her infant with the 
most tender affection, though she had reason to 
detest his existence. Finally, a poor peasant and 
his wife had pity on her ; they kept the child in 
their house, and took care of him for three years. 
The mother found a place, and her behaviour was 
very exemplary. 

The child increased, and gave great satisfaction 
to the adopting father, who loved him very much. 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 309 

This was enough for bad tongues to say, that the 
peasant was his father. Satisfied, with his con- 
scious innocence, he despised the wicked imputa- 
tion, but this was not the case with his wife. To 
keep peace at home, he was obliged to give the 
boy back to the mother. She begged her master 
and mistress in vain to keep her ; in vain she 
represented to them, that she had served with ex- 
emplary assiduity and fidelity. She was dis- 
charged in the most severe season. All the wealthy 
peasants treated her with the same severity. She 
sold whatever she possessed to feed her child and 
herself. He decayed through cold and misery. 
In this situation she prayed to Heaven to let both 
herself and him die. Her maternal affection was 
overpowered by an internal voice, which said 
aloud, that the onj^ means of saving them was the 

destruction of her child. She preferred to see 
him die suddenly, and in a moment of despair, 
she carried him to the River Elbe, and precipita- 
ted him into the stream. Exhausted, she fainted 
away, and was found in this situation. As soon 
as she recovered her senses, she accused herself. 
During her detention before trial, namely, a whole 
year, she behaved very well ; she manifested dis- 
tinct and deep repentance of her deed, which, 
however, she did not consider as a crime. The 
clergyman, who visited her from time to time, 
said that she was ignorant, but that she was mild, 
and very docile. The superintendants gave ex- 
cellent testimonies of her good conduct. These 



310 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

different motives determined the Court of Appeals 
to change the first judgment, according to which 
she ought to have been beheaded, and they con- 
demned her to confinement for life, without being 
severely treated. Here she learned to write and 
to read, and her whole conduct was orderly. 

From this narrative of facts, it is evident that 
her organization was not in contradiction with her 
manner of feeling and thinking, and that she de- 
served the benefit of the application of extenuating 
motives. 

There is no illegal action which has greater 
and j uster claims to be treated with equity than 
child-murder. In various countries penal legisla- 
tion is too severe in this respect. I am far from 
excusing a crime when it is voluntary, but 1 con- 
tend also for extenuating motives, whenever they 
can be admitted. Legislators and judges are 
commonly more or less severe, according to their 
own manner of feeling, rather than according to 
philosophical principles. Several say is it pos- 
sible to imagine a more barbarous and inhuman 
action, than that of a mother, deaf to the cries of 
nature, destroying her child, at the moment when 
he seeks for aliment from her breast ? Others 
reply, that because infanticide is a crime against 
nature, and because the hearts of all mothers re- 
volt at the idea of it, it is impossible that it can 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 311 

be committed except in a moment of derangement, 
and in a state of delirium. 

Infanticide impresses us with the idea of bar- 
barity and atrocity with the greater force, be- 
cause it seems natural that the love of offspring 
should prevent such an action. It is true, nature 
has endowed the greater number of women with 
this benevolent propensity. But in women, as 
well as in females of animals, this propensity has 
different degrees of energy. Certain cows do not 
suffer their calves to suck ; some pigs, cats, rab- 
bits, &c. kill their young, while other females of 
the same kind of animals cry for several days, 
and refuse to eat, when they are bereft of their 
offspring. It is a lamentable truth, that this dif- 
ference of motherly love exists also in mankind. 
All women do not desire to become mothers ; 
some consider their pregnancy as the greatest mis- 
fortune. Several mothers seek variouspretexts, in 
order to remove their children out of the house. 
There are others, who being freed from shame, 
reproach, misery, and many inconveniences, by 
the loss of their illegitimate children, yet shed 
tears for a long time after, at the remembrance of 
them. Others, on the contrary, see their legiti- 
mate offspring buried without a pang. Thus it is 
beyond doubt, that natural love of offspring is 
very weak in some women. It is therefore wrong 
to believe that infanticide is a more unnatural act 
than any other murder. 



312 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

I have examined thirty-seven child murderers, 
and in thirty the organ of Philoprogeny was very 
small. It does not follow that a mother, in whom 
the organ is small, must necessarily destroy her 
offspring. My object is only to observe, that this 
sentiment is not strong in every mother, and that, 
if females, in whom it is weak, are exposed to va- 
rious unfortunate circumstances, they are destitute 
of a great motive to combat the internal sensations 
which may impel them to this crime. 

Almost all laws against infanticide are framed 
on the supposition, that this crime, when not com- 
mitted in a fit of rage and hatred, is always pre- 
meditated. But is it true that these two are the 
only affections which exclude premeditation ? 
Different actions of our sex may be cited, in an- 
swer to this question. How often does not the 
sentiment of honor, which is even preposterous, 
dispose man to hazard his life. Several have de- 
stroyed themselves, for having lost a woman they 
loved. Others despair from disappointed ambi- 
tion, or from the loss of fortune. Our sex, how- 
ever, is the strongest ; we are seldom destitute of 
all resources, or deprived of all hope of finding a 
companion for life. How different is the situa- 
tion of an unfortunate woman ? The intellectual 
faculties of the female sex are commonly weaker ; 
hence they have less will to resist their stronger 
sensibility, and stronger affections and passions. 
Their sentiment of honor and shame is cultivated 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 313 

from infancy, exercised and exalted ; and we re- 
quire of young, timorous, inexperienced and sen- 
sible creatures, when the most dreadful event 
overwhelms them, to be cool, calm, and reflect- 
ing. The complaints of pregnancy, and many 
terrible thoughts during it, weaken the bodily 
strength, increase irritability, and disturb the 
mind. When the critical moment arrives, they 
are most frequently alone, without consolation, 
overwhelmed with grief, and weakened; how, 
then, can we expect that their judgment should 
be sound ? and if such an unhappy mother destroy 
the feeble existence of her offspring, perhaps in a 
iU of delirium, how ic it possible to confound such 
an action with the most horrible of crimes ? 

Moreover, men and women are more irritable 
at certain periods. In my work on Insanity, I 
have treated of these periods of irritability in the 
article on Fits. It coincides with the period of 
the menses, and their delivery happens at the 
same time, viz. when the mother would have had 
the tenth periodical return. Thus it is natural, 
that at this period the unfortunate woman should 
feel her situation more strongly, and be more in- 
clined to take a fatal resolution. 

Our sex can never be exposed to- such a misfor- 
tune ; and if, as it is the case in certain countries, 
we, the legislators, think that it is not expedient 
to require satisfaction from the seducer, and if we 
28 



314 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

fear to be unjust against perfidy, why do we fear 
to be indulgent and humane, towards the frail and 
disappointed female ? It is even conceivable, that 
such an unfortunate mother may continually think 
of the ingratitude and perfidy of the father of her 
child ; that she may consider how he has deceiv- 
ed her in the most infamous manner ; how he is 
the cause of her ignominy and misery ; how he 
forgets his forfeit, whilst, in some countries, the 
laws do not afford her any protection against him ; 
and how his stratagems are styled merely love in- 
trigues. May not indignation trouble her under- 
standing, and excite derangement of her mind ? 

Indeed, if it were not so difficult for a mother 
to take such a desperate resolution, infanticide, 
the result of illegitimate pregnancies and of per- 
fidy on the side of seducers, would be much more 
frequent. Hence it is but just to take into consid- 
eration the internal conflict which may have de- 
ranged the senses of a child murderess, and to ap- 
preciate all extenuating motives. The ideas on 
infanticide, which Dr. Hunter has detailed in a 
letter to the Royal Society of London, deserve the 
attention of every criminal legislator. I agree 
that it must be punished as murder, when it is 
committed with premeditation, with mature re- 
flection, in the complete use of moral liberty, 
without an urgent provocation, and through mere 
depravity of morals.* In this case, the legislator 
deserves all thanks for protecting the child who 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 315 

is without support and defence. But it is impor- 
tant to know how to distinguish the different cir- 
cumstances which accompany this action, and 
there can be no doubt that very often infanticide 
admits of many extenuating motives. 

Lying-in hospitals, where every woman with 
child is taken in and brought to bed, without 
being obliged to say who she is and whence she 
came, and foundling hospitals, often prevent in- 
fanticide. In countries where such establishments 
are wanting, child-murder is more frequent than 
in others where they exist. These institutions, 
however, tend so much to weaken the motive to 
moral restraint furnished by the obligation to 
support and to cherish offspring, that it may be 
fairly questioned whether the evils they produce 
in this point of view, are not greater than those 
they prevent in the other. 

In order to prevent child-murder, there is a 
law in certain countries, which obliges pregnant 
girls to discover their situation to some accouch- 
eur or midwife. If they do not fulfil this for- 
mality, they are supposed to have the intention of 
committing infanticide. In other countries, the 
proprietors of houses are answerable for pregnant 
girls who live in them. They are thus required 
to know the state of their locatories. 



316 CORRECTION OF MALEFACTORS. 

Unfortunately legislators are often in the same 
situation as physicians who attend incurable dis- 
eases. They try uncertain means, rather than do 
nothing. The law which obliges women to inti- 
mate their state of pregnancy, is in contradiction 
to nature. It is not necessary to mention, that 
there is no need of such a law with respect to 
girls of the town. These have lost their bashful- 
ness, and will go to the lying-in hospitals to be 
delivered. Such a regulation, therefore, must be 
intended for timorous, bashful, and decent women, 
who have been seduced. Now, the feeling of 
honor and bashfulness is considered as the best 
safeguard of female virtue, and is constantly cher- 
ished accordingly ; nevertheless, when such a 
girl falls, she is required, under pain of punish- 
ment, to make her shame known. There are men 
of mature age who, with the greatest reluctance, 
would confess certain diseases to their most inti- 
mate friends. How, then, can the law be so 
severe on females, for not confessing a circum- 
stance which they are taught to look upon as 
more disgraceful than any disease ? Besides, when 
we consider that such unfortunate girls are fre- 
quently actuated by a strong feeling of the igno- 
miny and misfortune they bring on their family 
by their misconduct, we ought to recollect, that 
their obstinacy in concealing their state, may, in 
truth, be allied more nearly to virtue than to 
crime. 



EXTENUATING MOTIVES. 317 

Thus, if extenuating motives are in any circum- 
stances to be admitted, in no cases will they be 
more truly applicable than in those of infanti- 
cide. 

In my work on Insanity, I have shown, that 
suicide in many cases is the effect of a corporeal 
disease. It then admits extenuating motives. 
Criminal legislators, if better acquainted with it 
than they commonly are, certainly will modify 
the laws upon the subject. These very rarely 
are of much efficacy in deterring those who wish 
to end their days, and are no punishment for them 
after death ; but it is not a matter of indifference 
to whole families, to have the stigma of alliance 
with a malefactor forced upon them, when in 
fact they have only had the misfortune to be con- 
nected with a diseased individual. For details 
on this subject I refer to my work on Insanity. 



*28 



313 CONCLUSION, 



CONCLUSION. 



The considerations, examined in the Appendix 
of this work, tend to show, that legislation in 
every branch ought to have only one aim, viz. 
the general happiness of mankind, and that of each 
individual, as far as it is compatible with the for- 
mer ; that penal legislation, in particular, ought 
to be corrective ; that in prisons, the inhabitants 
of which are to be sent back into society, all possi- 
ble means of correction should be employed ; that 
capital. punishment might be abolished, and the 
crimes for which it is inflicted prevented, by pro- 
per establishments. As punishment, however, is 
still the object of the penal code, I have treated 
of the different degrees of guilt which may be 
implied in criminal actions ; and of some illegal 
actions that admit of extenuating mo^ves, such as 
suicide and infanticide. From this Appendix, too, 
it may be inferred, how important and necessary, 
for legislators and judges, is the study of man. 



THE END. 



019 808 545 5 



